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Humans are exposed to a plethora of microorganisms that reside on outer and inner body surfaces. These are collectively referred to as the human microbiome. The evolutionary relationship between humans and their microbiome is very complex. It is now widely accepted that these microorganisms are not just passive spectators but play an important role in health. The presence or absence of certain microbes is also linked to various diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease, cardiovascular disease, obesity, cancer, and allergies.
Allergies are several conditions caused by a misguided immune response to foreign antigens that are typically harmless. Common allergic diseases include atopic dermatitis (AD), allergic asthma, hay fever, and anaphylaxis. The incidences of allergic diseases are continuously rising, with up to 40% of the human population thought to be sensitised to environmental antigens. This increased incidence is not simply the result of societies becoming more aware and better at diagnosing these diseases. It is believed that the increases in allergies and sensitisation have environmental causes and are related to Western lifestyles. It is known that the rate of allergies is less frequent in developing countries. They are also more likely to occur in urban than rural areas. The prevailing view of the involvement of bacteria in allergies is described by the hygiene hypothesis. The hypothesis claims that decreased exposure to diverse microbial communities early in life increases the risk of developing allergic diseases. There are numerous examples to support this claim. For example, children born and raised in close contact to farm animals or in the presence of pets, and who are thus in direct and constant contact with a complex microbial environment, are protected from allergic diseases. On the other hand, colonisation or infection with certain bacteria increases allergic disease risks. This seems to contradict the hygiene hypothesis.
It appears that the members of the microbiome have different effects on allergy, and the hygiene hypothesis may not apply to every player in the complex microbial diversity that humans are in contact with. Therefore, a better understanding of the host bacterial interaction is required on the level of bacterial species.
This work studies the interplay between bacteria and the immune system to identify and characterise bacterial components with allergenic properties. In this quest, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis) were investigated for their allergenic properties and involvement in different allergic diseases. In the case of S. aureus, evidence is presented on allergic implications for two different components; serine protease-like proteins (Spls) and superantigens (SAg). Furthermore, experimental support is provided on the allergenic properties of the extracellular serine protease (Esp) from S. epidermidis. We argue that stimulating allergic reactions by staphylococci is an immune evasion mechanism that increases the survival chances of the bacteria within the host.
In chapter 1, an introduction is given to both S. aureus and S. epidermidis and their interactions with the immune system. Also, the bacterial components with allergenic properties and allergic diseases with known bacterial involvement are presented. Finally, the question of why bacteria cause allergy is discussed.
Chapter 2 describes allergic reactions to the Spls of S. aureus in a cohort of cystic fibrosis patients. Chapter 3 focuses on the SAgs of S. aureus. SAgs were discovered more than 30 years ago, but their physiological function is still under discussion. In this chapter, the allergenic properties of SAgs and their possible immunological mechanisms are reviewed, and a possible link between SAgs and allergic diseases is discussed. In chapter 4, the focus shifts to S. epidermidis and its involvement in AD. The human immune response to the Esp from S. epidermidis is characterised in healthy and AD individuals. The allergenic properties of Esp imply a detrimental role of S. epidermidis in AD. Finally, chapter 5 summarises and discusses the results of this thesis. In this section, the pieces are put together, and attention is brought back to the question of why bacteria cause allergies.
Background: Previous studies suggest that blood donation impacts blood donors’ psychological state, with either positive or negative effects, such as feeling more energetic or more exhausted. It has not yet been described how long these effects last. Materials and Methods: This prospective cohort study consisted of a qualitative and a quantitative part: (1) Psychological characteristics which changed after blood donation were identified by structured interviews of regular whole blood donors (n = 42). Based on this, a questionnaire addressing 7 psychological dimensions was established. (2) The psychological state of 100 blood donors was assessed after blood donation by applying the questionnaire 15–30 min before and during donation, as well as 15–30 min, 6 h, 24 h, 72 h, 1 week, and 8 weeks after donation. The resulting changes were summarized to a score. Furthermore, potential correlations of the score with pre-donation blood pressure, hemoglobin, or body mass index were calculated. Results: Seven items were identified which changed in at least 25% of blood donors (mood, concentration, satisfaction, resilience, spirit of initiative, physical well-being, energy level). In the 100 blood donors, the well-being score increased (positive effects, n = 23), showed minor changes (n = 53), or decreased (negative effects, n = 24). The positive effects lasted for about 1 week and the negative effects for 3 days. Conclusion: While the frequency of psychological effects following blood donation identified by our study was comparable to others, the changes of the psychological state in our donors were traceable for a longer period than previously acknowledged.
Therapeutische Antikörper können unerwartete Wirkungen verursachen, wenn das Zielantigen nicht nur auf den Zielzellen exprimiert wird. Ein gegen das CD38-Antigen gerichteter Antikörper, Daratumumab (DARA), wurde für die Behandlung des multiplen Myeloms entwickelt. Allerdings beeinträchtigt dieser Antikörper erheblich die Verträglichkeitsuntersuchungen zwischen Blutkonserve und Patientenplasma vor der Transfusion von Erythrozytenkonzentraten.
CD38 wird auch auf Erythrozyten (RBCs) exprimiert. Durch die Bindung von DARA an die Spendererythrozyten wird im indirekten Antihumanglobulintest (IAT) eine in vitro Unverträglichkeit mit allen Testerythrozyten angezeigt. Dies wird dadurch verursacht, dass das erforderliche Antihumanglubulin (AHG) humanes IgG bindet, unabhängig davon, welches Zielantigen dieser Antikörper hat. Infolgedessen können Agglutinationen durch transfusionsrelevante Antikörper im Patientenplasma von DARA-induzieretn Agglutinationen nicht unterschieden werden, wodurch das Risiko für akute hämolytische Transfusionsreaktionen steigt.
Daraus ergab sich die Fragestellung für meine Arbeit – eine Modifikation für den IAT zu finden, der diese Interferenz auflöst. Ich habe zwei neue Strategien verfolgt: i) die Adsorption von DARA aus dem Patientenplasma mit CD38-exprimierenden peripheren Blutzellen, ii) die Blockung der DARA-Bindungsstelle auf Erythrozyten, ohne dass die Bindung von transfusionsrelevanten erythrozytären Antikörpern behindert wird.
Für den ersten Ansatz konnte ich PBMCs als die Zellen identifizieren, die die höchste CD38 Expression zeigten. Leider konnte die Inkubation von DARA-gespiktem Plasma selbst nach mehreren Adsorptionsschritten die Interferenz im IAT nicht vollständig beseitigen. Auch die Durchführung der Methode erwies sich als nicht praktikabel für ein Routine-Diagnostiklabor. Für den zweiten Ansatz habe ich mit Hilfe von Pepsin F(ab‘)2 Fragmente von DARA hergestellt um damit die DARA-Bindungsstelle auf den Erythrozyten zu blockieren, damit das AHG nur an gebundene transfusionsrelevante Antikörper bindet. Die Zugabe von DARA F(ab´)2 Fragmenten zu den Testerythrozyten konnte die DARA-induzierten Agglutinationen im IAT verhindern und im Plasma vorhandene erythrozytäre Alloantikörper sichtbar und differenzierbar machen. Weiterhin konnte ich nachweisen, dass die Zugabe von DARA (Fab´)2 Fragmenten nicht die Sensitivität der Teste im Gelzentrifugationstest und im Capture® beeinträchtigt. Experimente mit Plasma von Myelom-Patienten vor und nach der DARA-Infusion bestätigten die Ergebnisse. Die Verwendung von F(ab‘)2 Fragmenten ist ein vielversprechendes Verfahren, um Interferenzen von therapeutischen Antikörpern im IAT der prätransfusionellen Diagnostik aufzulösen - nicht nur für Daratumumab.
Background and Objectives: Vaccine induced thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT) may occur after COVID-19 vaccination with recombinant adenoviral vector-based vaccines. VITT can present as cerebral sinus and venous thrombosis (CSVT), often complicated by intracranial hemorrhage. Today it is unclear, how long symptomatic VITT can persist. Here, we report the complicated long-term course of a VITT patient with extremely high titers of pathogenic anti-platelet factor 4 (PF4)-IgG antibodies. Methods: Clinical and laboratory findings are presented, including the course of platelet counts, D-Dimer levels, clinical presentation, imaging, SARS-CoV-2-serological and immunological, platelet activating anti-PF4-IgG, as well as autopsy findings. Results: The patient presented with extended superior sagittal sinus thrombosis with accompanying bifrontal intracerebral hemorrhage. Repeated treatment with intravenous immune globuline (IVIG) resolved recurrent episodes of thrombocytopenia. Moreover, the patient’s serum remained strongly positive for platelet-activating anti-PF4-IgG over three months. After a period of clinical stabilization, the patient suffered a recurrent and fatal intracranial hemorrhage. Conclusions: Complicated VITT with extremely high anti-PF4-IgG titers over three months can induce recurrent thrombocytopenia despite treatment with IVIG and anticoagulation. Plasma exchange, immunoadsorption, and /or immunosuppressive treatment may be considered in complicated VITT to reduce extraordinarily high levels of anti-PF4-IgG. Long-term therapy in such cases must take the individual bleeding risk and CSVT risk into account.
Vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT) and cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) have been recently described as rare complications following vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 with vector vaccines. We report a case of a young woman who presented with VITT and cerebral CVST 7 days following vaccination with ChAdOx1 nCov-19 (AstraZeneca). While the initial MRI was considered void of pathological findings, MRI 3 days later revealed extensive CVST of the transversal and sigmoidal sinus with intracerebral haemorrhage. Diagnostic tests including a platelet-factor-4-induced platelet activation assay confirmed the diagnosis of VITT. Treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins and argatroban resulted in a normalisation of platelet counts and remission of CVST.
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is among the most common infectious agents, burdening the
global health care system and challenging physicians. Thus, the demand for vaccination is
increasing, and despite many attempts, no vaccine is currently available. The iron-regulated
surface determinant protein B (IsdB) is a highly conserved surface protein of S. aureus. It has
an essential role in bacterial iron acquisition and cell attachment, functioning as a fitness factor.
It has been shown that IsdB is critical for S. aureus virulence and growth in iron-restricted
conditions, such as the human host. Therefore, IsdB was studied as a vaccine candidate. A nonadjuvant vaccine (V710) was developed based on IsdB, which showed promising results in the
preclinical, phase I, and phase IIa trials. Unexpectedly, in a phase IIb/III, in cardiothoracic
surgery patients that were infected by S. aureus, mortality was significantly higher in the
vaccinated group than the placebo. Despite increased antibody levels against IsdB in the
vaccinated patients, V710 failed to prevent S. aureus infection. Therefore, a better
understanding of the interaction between S. aureus and the immune system is required.
We have discovered that IsdB has an important role in host-pathogen interaction. This bacterial
protein activated human monocytes and murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells
(mBMDCs) to produce proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, TNF-α, IL-12, IL-23, IL-33,
and IL-1β. In silico molecular docking and DimPlot analysis predicted that IsdB binds to -TLR4
via non-covalent interactions. Microscale thermophoresis confirmed that IsdB has a high
affinity to recombinant human TLR4 in the nanomolar range. Inhibition of TLR4 completely
abolished the production of all the cytokines mentioned above in both cell types. Furthermore,
we characterized the TLR4 signaling pathway triggered by IsdB. In human monocytes, blocking
the myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) adaptor protein and NF-κβ transcription factor
caused complete abrogation of proinflammatory cytokines in response to IsdB, revealing that
IsdB induces cytokine release via the TLR4-MyD88-NF-κβ dependent pathway.
The consistent release of IL-1β suggested that IsdB induced activation of the inflammasome, a
multi-molecular complex known to play a crucial role in innate immunity. We corroborated our
observations in human monocytes and mBMDCs by inhibiting essential components of the
NLRP3 inflammasome. Blocking NLRP3, caspases in general and caspase-1 completely
inhibited the release of IL-1β. In monocytes, IsdB alone was sufficient to induce NLRPdependent IL-1β release, suggesting an alternative pathway of inflammasome activation. In
contrast, mBMDCs required an additional stimulus, such as ATP or MSU (known stress
signals) besides IsdB, to release IL-1β, indicating a classical inflammasome activation. These
results demonstrate that IsdB induces the release of IL-1β via the TLR4-NLRP3-Caspase-1
axis. Next, we addressed the molecular mechanisms involved in IsdB-induced IL-1β in monocytes.
A low concentration of intracellular potassium (K+) resulting from K+ efflux is known to trigger the NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated IL-1β release. We demonstrated that blocking potassium efflux by inhibition of ion channels, such as pannexin channels (P2X)7, and addition of extracellular KCl significantly reduced IsdB-induced IL-1β. Other common inflammasome activators, such as phagolysosome rupture and reactive oxygen species (ROS), did not contribute to the release of IL-1β in response to IsdB. In summary, we revealed yet another role of IsdB beyond iron acquisition from Hb and attachment to the host cells via vitronectin and integrins. It is conceivable that IsdB’s interaction with innate immune cells modulates the quality of the adaptive immune response, showing a new facet in the pathogen-host relationship of S. aureus that should be considered in future
vaccine development.
High Na+ Environments Impair Phagocyte Oxidase-Dependent Antibacterial Activity of Neutrophils
(2021)
Infection and inflammation can augment local Na+ abundance. These increases in local Na+ levels boost proinflammatory and antimicrobial macrophage activity and can favor polarization of T cells towards a proinflammatory Th17 phenotype. Although neutrophils play an important role in fighting intruding invaders, the impact of increased Na+ on the antimicrobial activity of neutrophils remains elusive. Here we show that, in neutrophils, increases in Na+ (high salt, HS) impair the ability of human and murine neutrophils to eliminate Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. High salt caused reduced spontaneous movement, degranulation and impaired production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) while leaving neutrophil viability unchanged. High salt enhanced the activity of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38/MAPK) and increased the interleukin (IL)-8 release in a p38/MAPK-dependent manner. Whereas inhibition of p38/MAPK did not result in improved neutrophil defense, pharmacological blockade of the phagocyte oxidase (PHOX) or its genetic ablation mimicked the impaired antimicrobial activity detected under high salt conditions. Stimulation of neutrophils with phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA) overcame high salt-induced impairment in ROS production and restored antimicrobial activity of neutrophils. Hence, we conclude that high salt-impaired PHOX activity results in diminished antimicrobial activity. Our findings suggest that increases in local Na+ represent an ionic checkpoint that prevents excessive ROS production of neutrophils, which decreases their antimicrobial potential and could potentially curtail ROS-mediated tissue damage.
Sepsis wird als eine lebensbedrohliche Organdysfunktion aufgrund einer fehlregulierten Reaktion des Organismus auf eine Infektion definiert (Sepsis-3) (23). Trotz der Fortschritte in der modernen Medizintechnik und der Entwicklung neuer Medikamente bleibt die Sepsis weiterhin eine der häufigsten Todesursachen auf Intensivstationen weltweit. Hinzu kommt, dass zukünftig von einer steigenden Letalität auszugehen ist. Gründe hierfür sind neben dem zunehmenden Anteil älterer und chronisch kranker Patienten die zunehmende Invasivität vieler diagnostischer und operativer Eingriffe und die steigende Antibiotikaresistenz der Erreger (35). Der rasante Anstieg resistenter Krankheitserreger weltweit stellt die Sepsisbehandlung vor neue Herausforderungen. Entscheidend für die Senkung der Letalität ist eine schnelle Diagnostik und eine zielgerichtete Therapie. Die auf kulturellen Verfahren basierte vorherrschende mikrobiologische Standarddiagnostik ist zu zeitintensiv, daher werden aktuell molekular-basierte Verfahren entwickelt die eine schnelle Diagnostik ermöglichen.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war herauszufinden, ob sich der Organismus in einer Sepsis mit dem invasivem Krankheitserreger auseinandersetzt und eine humorale Immunantwort generiert und ob diese Immunantwort erregerspezifisch ist.
Zur Beantwortung dieser Fragen wurde in dieser Arbeit ein Verfahren entwickelt, um die Antikörper-Bindung an verschiedene bakterielle Proteine zu quantifizieren.
Dafür wurden humane Plasmen von Sepsispatienten aus einer prospektiven klinischen Studie (VYOO-Studie, Greifswald) mittels automatisiertem 1D-Western Blot Verfahren (Simple WesternTM assay) auf ihren erregerspezifischen Antikörper-Gehalt untersucht. Das Erregerspektrum wurde durch die extrazellulären Proteine häufiger Sepsiserreger
(Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens und Escherichia coli) bereitgestellt. Alle Bakterienisolate, mit Ausnahme von S. aureus (USA300 Δspa), stammen aus Wundabstrichen, Trachealsekreten und Blutkulturen der Sepsispatienten und wurden in der Medizinischen Mikrobiologie des Greifswalder Universitätsklinikums aufbewahrt und für die Kultivierung zur Verfügung gestellt. Mit Hilfe des automatisierten, eindimensionalen Western Blot (1D-WB) wurde die Bindung der extrahierten extrazellulären Proteine (ec-stat) verschiedener Sepsiserreger an humanen Serumantikörpern untersucht.
Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit stellen heraus, dass immunkompetente Patienten während einer systemischen Infektion eine adaptive Immunantwort generieren. Um herauszufinden ob diese Immunantwort erregerspezifisch ist, wurden die Patientenplasmen nicht nur gegen extrazelluläre Proteine (ec-stat) des jeweiligen invasiven Erregers getestet, sondern auch gegen ec-stat anderer Bakterienspezies. Bei jedem der untersuchten Erreger konnten Patienten mit einem Antikörperanstieg identifiziert werden. Bei keinem Patienten stiegen Antikörper gegen alle untersuchten Erreger an. Schlussfolgernd beruht der Antikörperanstieg auf einer spezifischen Reaktion des Immunsystems auf bakterielle Invasion und ist demzufolge erregerspezifisch.
Es zeigte sich, dass v.a. bei Patienten mit einer abdominellen Sepsis die Antikörpertiter gegen mehrere Darmbakterienspezies ansteigen. Diese Befunde deuten darauf hin, dass sich das Immunsystem mit multiplen Erregern auseinandergesetzt hat, selbst wenn mikrobiologisch nur ein Erreger nachgewiesen wurde. Dies könnte relevant für die Antibiotikatherapie sein.
Des Weiteren konnte beobachtet werden, dass trotz mikrobiologisch nachgewiesenem Erreger bei einigen Patienten keine Immunantwort gegen den Keim generiert wurde.
Insgesamt zeigen die Daten, dass viele Patienten bereits vor einer Infektion spezifische Antikörper gebildet haben. Schlussfolgernd hat sich das adaptive Immunsystem schon seit längerer Zeit (vor Infektion) mit dem Krankheitserreger auseinander gesetzt.
Mit Hilfe einer immunologischen Sepsisserologie, wie der Verwendung des in dieser Arbeit genutzten Simple WesternTM Assays, lassen sich wichtige Informationen über die Pathogenese der Sepsis und die Reaktion des Immunsystems gewinnen. Diese ergänzen die konventionelle mikrobiologische Diagnostik. Ein besseres Verständnis der Immunantwort bei Sepsis ist eine Voraussetzung für die Entwicklung neuer therapeutische Ansätze. In wie weit der Simple WesternTM Assay - jedoch das diagnostische Portfolio bei Sepsis erweitern kann, müssen weitere Untersuchungen zur Sensitivität und Reproduzierbarkeit adressieren.
Our goal was to provide a comprehensive overview of the antibody response to Staphylococcus aureus antigens in the general population as a basis for defining disease-specific profiles and diagnostic signatures. We tested the specific IgG and IgA responses to 79 staphylococcal antigens in 996 individuals from the population-based Study of Health in Pomerania. Using a dilution-based multiplex suspension array, we extended the dynamic range of specific antibody detection to seven orders of magnitude, allowing the precise quantification of high and low abundant antibody specificities in the same sample. The observed IgG and IgA antibody responses were highly heterogeneous with differences between individuals as well as between bacterial antigens that spanned several orders of magnitude. Some antigens elicited significantly more IgG than IgA and vice versa. We confirmed a strong influence of colonization on the antibody response and quantified the influence of sex, smoking, age, body mass index, and serum glucose on anti-staphylococcal IgG and IgA. However, all host parameters tested explain only a small part of the extensive variability in individual response to the different antigens of S. aureus.