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Streptococcus pneumoniae is a commensal of the human upper respiratory tract and
the etiological agent of several life-threatening diseases. This pathogen is the model bacterium
for natural competence. Furthermore, the pneumococci played an important role in the
identification of DNA as the main molecule involved in bacterial transformation. As a result,
studies on the pneumococcal genome provided an initial overview of the genetic potential of
this pathogen. The pneumococcus is a highly versatile bacterium possessing a high rate of
uptake and recombination of exogenous DNA from neighboring bacteria. As such, a significant
diversity in the genome content among the different pneumococcal strains has been reported.
The capsular polysaccharide, an important pneumococcal virulence factor, is the best example
on the pneumococcal diversity. There are over 98 serotypes characterized to date presenting
differences in their capsule (cps) locus. Additional to the cps locus, the pneumococcus also
presents 13 genomic islets annotated as regions of diversity (RD) encoded in the auxiliary
genome. Remarkably, 8 of the pneumococcal RD studied so far have been associated with
virulence. Furthermore, the ongoing sequencing of over 4000 pneumococcal genomes have
shed light on the conservation level of well-known pneumococcal virulence factors.
Interestingly, important pneumococcal virulence determinants show variations in the gene and
protein sequence among the different strains. Prototypes are for example the pneumococcal
surface protein C (PspC) and pneumococcal adherence and virulence factor B (PavB).
Conversely, gene regulation in S. pneumoniae is carried out by highly conserved and genome-
wide distributed transcriptional factors. Overall, the pneumococci interplays with its
environment with 4 major regulatory systems: quorum sensing (QS), stand-alone
transcriptional regulators, small RNAs (sRNAs) and two-component regulatory systems (TCS).
Some of these systems are multifaceted and share more than one feature. Furthermore, there
is crosstalk among the different systems, requiring the activation of a signaling cascade to
function properly.
A comprehensive analysis of the distribution and conservation of pneumococcal
virulence factors and TCS was obtained in this study. The results are summarized as a
simplified variome in which 25 pneumococcal strains with a complete sequenced genome were
analyzed. Interestingly, the genes encoding the glycolytic protein enolase and the toxin
pneumolysin were the most conserved virulence determinants. Additionally, the high level of
conservation was confirmed for the pneumococcal TCS regulators, especially for WalKR,
CiaRH and TCS08.
The main focus of this study was on the regulatory functions of pneumococcal TCS.
With this in mind, an extensive and detailed systematic review of the 13 pneumococcal TCS
and its orphan RR was undertaken. For this purpose, every pneumococcal TCS was analyzed
for its reported functional and structural information along with its contribution to the main
pathophysiology of the pneumococci. In brief, S. pneumoniae can utilize its TCS for the
regulation of important cellular processes and the sensing of detectable signals in the
environment. Additionally, the role of TCS in pneumococcal processes and signal sensing can
be divided further. In the first place, pneumococcal TCS regulate competence and fratricide,
the production of bacteriocins and host-pathogen interaction processes, while the detectable
signals include cell-wall perturbations, environmental stress, and nutrients. As a conclusion
from this section, it is possible to analyze the pneumococcal TCS in a comprehensive manner.
There is a complex network among the different pneumococcal regulators and the TCS play
an important role. Moreover, these systems are highly conserved and essential for the proper
functioning of the pneumococcus as a pathogen.
Following up on pneumococcal TCS, this study focused especially on the TCS08.
Interestingly, the pneumococcal TCS08 has been previously associated with the regulation of the cellobiose metabolism. Furthermore, this system has also been reported to regulate the
expression of genes encoded in the RD4 (Pilus-1). Remarkably, the pneumococcal TCS08
was shown to be highly homologous to the SaeRS system of Staphylococcus aureus. Initially,
mutant strains lacking a single (Δrr08 or Δhk08) or both components (Δtcs08) of the TCS08
were generated in pneumococcal D39 and TIGR4 strains. Transcriptomics and functional
assays showed a downregulation of the PI-1 in the absence of the complete tcs08, while PavB
presented an upregulation in the Δhk08 knockout. Moreover, an important number of genes
coding for intermediary metabolism proteins were also found to be differentially expressed by
microarray analysis. As such, the TIGR4Δhk08 strain presented a downregulation for the
cellobiose operon (cel). In contrast, an upregulation was reported for the fatty acid biosynthesis
(fab) and arginine catabolism (arc) operons. Conversely, a decrease in gene expression was
seen in the TIGR4Δrr08 strain for the arc operon. Finally, in vivo murine pneumonia and sepsis
models highlighted an involvement of TCS08 in pneumococcal virulence. Remarkably, the
different TCS08 mutants presented a strain dependent effect on their virulence severity. The
TIGR4Δrr08, and all TCS08 mutants in D39 showed a decrease in virulence in the pneumonia
model, with no changes in sepsis. Conversely, the absence of HK08 in TIGR4 presented a
highly virulent phenotype in both pneumonia and sepsis models. To sum up, the pneumococcal
TCS08 influenced the expression of genes involved in fitness and colonization. Specifically,
those coding for the adhesins PavB and PI-1 and fitness proteins from the cel, arc and fab
operons. Remarkably, the highest changes in expression were observed in the strains lacking
the HK08. Additionally, TCS08 has a strain dependent impact on pneumococcal virulence as
showed by murine pneumonia and sepsis models when comparing the effects in D39 and
TIGR4.
Background: Depression and obesity are widespread and closely linked. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and vitamin D are both assumed to be associated with depression and obesity. Little is known about the interplay between vitamin D and BDNF. We explored the putative associations and interactions between serum BDNF and vitamin D levels with depressive symptoms and abdominal obesity in a large population-based cohort. Methods: Data were obtained from the population-based Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP)-Trend (n = 3,926). The associations of serum BDNF and vitamin D levels with depressive symptoms (measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire) were assessed with binary and multinomial logistic regression models. The associations of serum BDNF and vitamin D levels with obesity (measured by the waist-to-hip ratio [WHR]) were assessed with binary logistic and linear regression models with restricted cubic splines. Results: Logistic regression models revealed inverse associations of vitamin D with depression (OR = 0.966; 95% CI 0.951–0.981) and obesity (OR = 0.976; 95% CI 0.967–0.985). No linear association of serum BDNF with depression or obesity was found. However, linear regression models revealed a U-shaped association of BDNF with WHR (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Vitamin D was inversely associated with depression and obesity. BDNF was associated with abdominal obesity, but not with depression. At the population level, our results support the relevant roles of vitamin D and BDNF in mental and physical health-related outcomes.
Neurosonographischer und klinischer Verlauf von distalen extra- und intrakraniellen Stenosen des vertebrobasilären Stromgebietes in einem ambulanten Patientenkollektiv.
Hintergrund: Ca. 26% der Schlaganfälle sind im vertebrobasilären Stromgebiet lokalisiert. Stenookklusive Veränderungen der intrakraniellen Arteria vertebralis und basilaris bergen nach vorliegenden Studien ein hohes Risiko für ein ischämisches Ereignis. Empirisch hat sich jedoch in einem ambulanten Setting unserer neurovaskulären Sprechstunde trotz einer relativ hohen Dynamik in den neurosonographischen Befunden eine eher geringe Konversionsrate asymptomatischer Stenosen in ein manifestes zerebrovaskuläres Ereignis beobachten lassen.
Methoden: Patienten aus der Neurovaskulären Ambulanz mit seit ≥24 Monaten bekannten vertebrobasilären stenookklusiven Veränderungen wurden prospektiv in die Studie eingeschlossen. Über mindestens ein Jahr erfolgte die Verlaufsbeobachtung der neurovaskulären Befunde mittels extra- und intrakranieller Doppler- sowie Duplexsonographie sowie des neurologischen und funktionellen Status mittels NIHSS und MRS. Demographische Basisdaten, kardiovaskuläre Risikofaktoren, Komorbiditäten und therapeutische Maßnahmen wurden anhand von standardisierten Fragebögen gewonnen. Eine kognitive Leistungserfassung erfolgte mittels MMST, die Erfassung der Lebensqualität mittels EuroQol und SF-36 v.2.0.
Ergebnisse: 94 Patienten (mittleres Alter 69,7 Jahre, 55% männlich) mit einem retrospektiven Beobachtungszeitraum von im Mittel 5,5 Jahre (2-12,9 Jahre) wurden eingeschlossen. An Komorbiditäten war bei 97% eine Hypertonie, 83% eine Dyslipidämie, 67% ein Nikotinabusus, 35% ein Diabetes mellitus, 38% eine koronare Herzkrankheit und 27% eine periphere arterielle Verschlusskrankheit bekannt. Ein zerebrovaskuläres Ereignis hatte vor Einschluss bereits 75% der Probanden, 28% im vertebrobasilären Stromgebiet. Im Follow-Up traten bei 2,4% Schlaganfälle ausschließlich im Carotis-Stromgebiet auf. Bei den stenookklusiven Veränderungen handelte es sich um 63% basiläre (61% leicht-, 25% mittel-, 12% hochgradige, 2% okklusive) und 56% distale vertebrale Läsionen (48%, 15%, 31%, 8%). Bei 21% der Patienten konnten im Follow-Up sonographische Veränderungen beobachtet werden, im hinteren Stromgebiet bei 11% (78% Stenosegrad-Reduktion, 22% -Zunahme) und im vorderen Stromgebiet bei 12% (50%, 60%). Die funktionelle Beeinträchtigung wurde durch den medianen MRS mit 1 (Spanne 0-4; MRS ≤2 88%), den NIHSS mit 0 (0-11) und den MMST mit 29 (22-30) angegeben, im Follow-Up mit leichtem Anstieg des MRS auf 1 (0-6; p=0,038) und des NIHSS auf 1 (0-15; p=0,058). Die klinische Veränderung ging bei 29% mit einer sonographischen Veränderung einher. Die für dieses Kollektiv gute Lebensqualität zeigte im Follow-Up trotz einer signifikanten Besserung der Vitalität eine Reduktion des allgemeinen Gesundheitszustands und der sozialen Funktionalität.
Fazit: In dieser Studie konnten wir trotz eines hohen vaskulären Risikoprofils und einer niedrigen Rate an Sekundärprophylaxe eine Tendenz zur Regredienz der Stenosen im vertebrobasilären Stromgebiet sowie eine sehr niedrige Schlaganfall-Inzidenz beobachten. Im longitudinalen Verlauf zeigte sich ein insgesamt gutes klinisches Outcome mit einer nur leichten, aber signifikanten Verschlechterung. Ursächlich für diese Entwicklung vertebrobasilärer Stenosen sahen wir den im Vergleich zum vorderen Stromgebiet bekannten abweichenden Pathomechanismus, so dass die Schlussfolgerung nahe liegt, dass vertebrobasiläre Stenosen weniger gefährlich sind. Im Weiteren ist zu klären, wie die Entwicklung der vertebrobasilären Stenosen unter verschiedenen Therapieregimen verläuft.
Ein intaktes Angiopoietin/Tie-2-Liganden-Rezeptor-System ist unabdingbar für die endotheliale Regulierung und damit für das Überleben eines Organismus. Erhöhte Konzentrationen von zirkulierendem Ang-2 sind eng assoziiert mit Nierenerkrankungen und damit mit einem progredienten Verlust der glomerulären Filtrationsleistung. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die Assoziationen zwischen zirkulierenden Ang-2- und Tie-2-Konzentrationen mit funktionellen Nierenfunktionsparametern in einer populationsbasierten Studie mit insgesamt 7169 Probanden aus zwei unabhängig voneinander erhobenen Kohorten (SHIP-1 und SHIP-Trend). Die Nierenfunktion wurde mittels Kreatinin, Cystatin C, eGFR(Krea) oder eGFR(Cys) und des uACRs untersucht. Zur statistischen Analyse wurden Varianz- und lineare Regressionsanalysen durchgeführt. In der Gesamtpopulation stellte sich eine starke positive Assoziation zwischen Ang-2 und Cystatin C oder uACR, sowie eine inverse Assoziation zwischen Ang-2 und eGFR(Cys) dar. Diese Ergebnisse blieben auch in der Subpopulation mit Probanden ohne arterielle Hypertonie und Diabetes mellitus Typ 2 erhalten. Die Beziehungen zwischen Ang-2 und Kreatinin sowie eGFR(Krea) waren U-förmig und interessanterweise insgesamt weniger stark im Vergleich zu Cystatin C bzw. eGFR(Cys). Für Tie-2 konnten signifikante Assoziationen vor allem für Cystatin C und eGFR(Cys) verzeichnet werden. Ergänzend zum bisherigen Wissensstand konnte in der Studie ein Zusammenhang zu Ang-2 bei bereits geringfügig reduzierter eGFR beschrieben werden. Zusammenfassend bestätigten die statistischen Analysen, dass Ang-2 eng im Zusammenhang mit sensitiven und prognostischen Parametern für eine Nierenschädigung steht. Trotz Bildung einer Subpopulation mit Probanden ohne arterielle Hypertonie und Diabetes mellitus Typ 2, zwei Erkrankungen, die mit erhöhten Ang-2-, Tie-2- und Cystatin C-Konzentrationen assoziiert sind, blieben die Beziehungen für Cystatin C, eGFR(Cys) und uACR in der Subpopulation bestehen. Die Unterschiede zu den Ergebnissen der Analysen mit Kreatinin und eGFR(Krea) wurden mutmaßlich auf die höhere Sensitivität von Cystatin C als Marker einer leichtgradig bis moderat eingeschränkten eGFR zurückgeführt. Da es sich bei der Arbeit um eine populationsbasierte Querschnittsstudie handelt, konnten Langzeitbeobachtungen sowie kausale oder pathophysiologische Zusammenhänge nicht geklärt werden. Die potenzielle Rolle von Ang-2, allein oder in Kombination mit Serum-Cystatin C, als Marker zur Frühdiagnostik von Nierenbeeinträchtigungen oder CKD bleibt in weiteren Studien zu evaluieren.
Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die Relevanz des Intermediärfilamentes Zytokeratin 15 (K15) als potentiellen epithelialen Stammzellmarker im Darm und den Einfluss K15 positiver Zellreihen auf die Krypta Homöostase.
Zwei Hauptstammzellpools regulieren den schnellen Zellumsatz im Darmepithel. Dies sind einerseits schnell proliferierende Lgr5 positive Stammzellen, welche zwischen den Paneth-Zellen an der Krypta-Basis vorgefunden werden. Anderseits gibt es vermutlich langsamer wachsende Bmi1 positive Zellen, welche sich an der +4-Position oberhalb der Krypta-Basis befinden. Im Haarfollikel und im Ösophagusepithel stellt das Intermediärfilament K15 einen Marker für Stammzellen dar, die zur Gewebereparatur beitragen. In dieser Arbeit haben wir gezeigt, dass K15 im Darm langlebige Kryptazellen mit Multipotenz- und Selbsterneuerungspotenzial markiert. K15 positive Krypta-Zellen sind resistent gegen hochdosierte ionisierende Strahlung und tragen zur Kryptaexpansion bei. Die hier vorgestellten Ergebnisse zeigen nun erstmals im Darm eine langlebige, multipotente K15 exprimierende Kryptazellpopulation, die eine Selbsterneuerungskapazität besitzt. Insbesondere führt der Verlust des Tumorsuppressor Gens Apc in K15 positiven Zellen zur Adenombildung, die potentiell zum Adenokarzinomen fortschreiten können. Wir erörtern die Hypothese, dass K15 eine Gruppe langlebiger, strahlenresistenter Stammzellen markiert, die die Homöostase der Krypta und die Regenerationsfähigkeit maßgeblich beeinflussen.
Background: Depression and obesity are widespread and closely linked. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and vitamin D are both assumed to be associated with depression and obesity. Little is known about the interplay between vitamin D and BDNF. We explored the putative associations and interactions between serum BDNF and vitamin D levels with depressive symptoms and abdominal obesity in a large population-based cohort. Methods: Data were obtained from the population-based Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP)-Trend (n = 3,926). The associations of serum BDNF and vitamin D levels with depressive symptoms (measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire) were assessed with binary and multinomial logistic regression models. The associations of serum BDNF and vitamin D levels with obesity (measured by the waist-to-hip ratio [WHR]) were assessed with binary logistic and linear regression models with restricted cubic splines. Results: Logistic regression models revealed inverse associations of vitamin D with depression (OR = 0.966; 95% CI 0.951–0.981) and obesity (OR = 0.976; 95% CI 0.967–0.985). No linear association of serum BDNF with depression or obesity was found. However, linear regression models revealed a U-shaped association of BDNF with WHR (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Vitamin D was inversely associated with depression and obesity. BDNF was associated with abdominal obesity, but not with depression. At the population level, our results support the relevant roles of vitamin D and BDNF in mental and physical health-related outcomes.
Background: Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) represent a global health threat to individuals and societies. IDD prevention programmes have been introduced in many parts of the world. However, challenges remain, particularly in Europe due to fragmentation and diversity of approaches that are not harmonized. Objectives: This review is dedicated to the public-health impact of IDD prevention programmes. It sums up experiences collected by the EUthyroid consortium so far and provides information on stakeholders that should be involved in actions directed to improve the impact of IDD prevention. Methods: A joint European database for combining registry-based outcome and monitoring data as well as tools for harmonizing study methods were established. Methods for analyzing thyroglobulin from a dried blood spot are available for assessing the iodine status in the general population and at-risk groups. Mother-child cohorts are used for in-depth analysis of the potential impact of mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency on the neurocognitive development of the offspring. A decision-analytic model has been developed to evaluate the long-term effectiveness and cost effectiveness of IDD prevention programmes. Results: EUthyroid has produced tools and infrastructure to improve the quality of IDD monitoring and follows a dissemination strategy targeting policymakers and the general public. There are tight connections to major stakeholders in the field of IDD monitoring and prevention. Conclusions: EUthyroid has taken steps towards achieving a euthyroid Europe. Our challenge is to inspire a greater sense of urgency in both policymakers and the wider public to address this remediable deficit caused by IDD.
Arm Ability Training (AAT) has been specifically designed to promote manual dexterity recovery for stroke patients who have mild to moderate arm paresis. The motor control problems that these patients suffer from relate to a lack of efficiency in terms of the sensorimotor integration needed for dexterity. Various sensorimotor arm and hand abilities such as speed of selective movements, the capacity to make precise goal-directed arm movements, coordinated visually guided movements, steadiness, and finger dexterity all contribute to our “dexterity” in daily life. All these abilities are deficient in stroke patients who have mild to moderate paresis causing focal disability. The AAT explicitly and repetitively trains all these sensorimotor abilities at the individual's performance limit with eight different tasks; it further implements various task difficulty levels and integrates augmented feedback in the form of intermittent knowledge of results. The evidence from two randomized controlled trials indicates the clinical effectiveness of the AAT with regard to the promotion of “dexterity” recovery and the reduction of focal disability in stroke patients with mild to moderate arm paresis. In addition, the effects have been shown to be superior to time-equivalent “best conventional therapy.” Further, studies in healthy subjects showed that the AAT induced substantial sensorimotor learning. The observed learning dynamics indicate that different underlying sensorimotor arm and hand abilities are trained. Capacities strengthened by the training can, in part, be used by both arms. Non-invasive brain stimulation experiments and functional magnetic resonance imaging data documented that at an early stage in the training cortical sensorimotor network areas are involved in learning induced by the AAT, yet differentially for the tasks trained. With prolonged training over 2 to 3 weeks, subcortical structures seem to take over. While behavioral similarities in training responses have been observed in healthy volunteers and patients, training-induced functional re-organization in survivors of a subcortical stroke uniquely involved the ipsilesional premotor cortex as an adaptive recruitment of this secondary motor area. Thus, training-induced plasticity in healthy and brain-damaged subjects are not necessarily the same.
Mast cells reside on and near the cerebral vasculature, the predominant site of pneumococcal entry into the central nervous system (CNS). Although mast cells have been reported to be crucial in protecting from systemic bacterial infections, their role in bacterial infections of the CNS remained elusive. Here, we assessed the role of mast cells in pneumococcal infection in vitro and in vivo. In introductory experiments using mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMC), we found that (i) BMMC degranulate and release selected cytokines upon exposure to Streptococcus pneumoniae, (ii) the response of BMMC varies between different pneumococcal serotypes and (iii) is dependent on pneumolysin. Intriguingly though, apart from a slight enhancement of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pleocytosis, neither two different mast cell-deficient Kit mutant mouse strains (WBB6F1-KitW/Wv and C57BL/6 KitW-sh/W-sh mice) nor pharmacologic mast cell stabilization with cromoglycate had any significant impact on the disease phenotype of experimental pneumococcal meningitis. The incomplete reversal of the enhanced CSF pleocytosis by local mast cell engraftment suggests that this phenomenon is caused by other c-Kit mutation-related mechanisms than mast cell deficiency. In conclusion, our study suggests that mast cells can be activated by S. pneumoniae in vitro. However, mast cells do not play a significant role as sentinels of pneumococcal CSF invasion and initiators of innate immunity in vivo.
Background and Aims: Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are rare malignancies but the most common mesenchymal tumors of the digestive tract. Recent advances in diagnostic imaging and an increasing incidence will confront us more frequently with stromal tumors. This single center study aimed to characterize GIST patients in terms of tumor location, clinical presentation, metastasis formation, as well as associated secondary malignancies. Methods: In a retrospective study, 104 patients with a histologically confirmed diagnosis of GIST, collected between 1993 and 2011, were characterized for several clinical features. Results: The most common GIST location was the stomach (67.6%) followed by the small intestine (16.2%). Gastrointestinal bleeding (55.8%) and abdominal pain (38.5%) were the most frequently reported symptoms whereas about one-third of patients remained clinically asymptomatic (31.6%); 14.4% of patients had either synchronous or metachronous metastases and there was a significant prevalence also in the low risk group. The proportion of secondary malignant associated neoplasms was 31% in our GIST cohort, among which gastrointestinal, genitourinary tumors, and breast cancer were the most prevalent. Conclusion: There was a considerable risk for metastasis formation and the development of secondary neoplasias that should encourage discussion about the appropriate surveillance strategy after surgery for GIST.
In aktuellen Studien aus den letzten Jahren mehren sich die Hinweise auf metabolische Einflüsse
von Osteocalcin. Neben dem Skelettsystem scheint besonders der Energiestoffwechsel,
speziell auf der Ebene der Distribution und des Verbrauchs von Glucose mit Osteocalcin
zu interagieren. In der vorliegenden Studie wurden Blutplasma- und Urinproben von 931
gesunden Probanden mittels Massenspektrometrie (Tandem-Massenspektroskopie mit vorgeschalteter
Flüssigkeitschromatographie) auf niedermolekulare Substanzen untersucht, um
dann auf systemische Effekte von Osteocalcin zu schließen. Diese Methodik erlaubt eine
breite Untersuchung von Wirkungen von Osteocalcin in allen Organsystemen, auch in jenen,
für die bisher noch keine Interaktionen mit Osteocalcin bekannt sind. Die Berechnung eines
ersten Modells zeigte viele Zusammenhänge. Diese waren jedoch stark durch die Nierenfunktion
beeinflusst. Nach Adjustierung für die Nierenfunktion blieben insgesamt 29 signifikante
Ergebnisse erhalten. Zu diesen Ergebnissen zählten zuvorderst Zwischenprodukte des
Kollagenstoffwechsels, besonders Prolinderivate, was die Bedeutung von Osteocalcin im
Knochenstoffwechsel unterstreicht. Die weiteren Ergebnisse umfassten eine Assoziation mit
Kynurenin, ein Hinweis auf die Möglichkeit, dass Entzündungen Einflüsse auf zirkulierendes
Osteocalcin haben könnten. Weitere Hinweise auf die bereits bekannte Verknüpfung zwischen
dem Energiestoffwechsel und Osteocalcin bietet die vorliegende Studie durch die Detektion
einer Assoziation zwischen Osteocalcin und Abbauprodukten von verzweigtkettigen
Aminosäuren. Auch scheint Osteocalcin vom Lebensstil, wie beispielsweise dem Tabakrauchen,
beeinflusst zu werden. Zusammenfassend bietet die vorliegende Studie einen umfassenden
Überblick über die metabolischen Einflüsse von Osteocalcin. Darin war eine Vielzahl
von Assoziationen nachweisbar, die jedoch insgesamt für eine eher geringe Rolle von Osteocalcin
im menschlichen Stoffwechsel sprechen.