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Lacewings (Neuroptera) have predatory larvae with highly specialised mouthparts. Larvae of many groups within Neuroptera are well represented as fossils preserved in ambers; however, larvae of some groups are less often reported in the literature. Here we report such a rare case, a larva of the group Hemerobiidae, an aphidlion, preserved in a piece of Eocene Baltic amber (about 40 million years old). It is preserved together with three possible prey items, wingless aphids, most likely representatives of Germaraphis (or at least closely related to this group). The aphidlion can be identified based on the morphology of the antennae, simple curved and toothless stylets, well developed labial palps, and the absence of other mouth-part structures such as a protruding labrum or maxillary palps. A long, club-shaped distal element of the labial palps identifies the specimen as a larva of Hemerobiidae. The aphids can be identified based on their very long, beak-like mouth parts. This find is, to our knowledge, the first example of a lacewing larva preserved together with its potential prey. We briefly discuss other cases in which fossils preserved in amber allow us to reconstruct aspects of behaviour and interactions of fossil lacewing larvae.
Abstract
Non‐native invasive species are threatening ecosystems and biodiversity worldwide. High genetic variation is thought to be a critical factor for invasion success. Accordingly, the global invasion of a few clonal lineages of the gastropod Potamopyrgus antipodarum is thus both puzzling and has the potential to help illuminate why some invasions succeed while others fail. Here, we used SNP markers and a geographically broad sampling scheme (N = 1617) including native New Zealand populations and invasive North American and European populations to provide the first widescale population genetic assessment of the relationships between and among native and invasive P. antipodarum. We used a combination of traditional and Bayesian molecular analyses to demonstrate that New Zealand populations harbour very high diversity relative to the invasive populations and are the source of the two main European genetic lineages. One of these two European lineages was in turn the source of at least one of the two main North American genetic clusters of invasive P. antipodarum, located in Lake Ontario. The other widespread North American group had a more complex origin that included the other European lineage and two New Zealand clusters. Altogether, our analyses suggest that just a small handful of clonal lineages of P. antipodarum were responsible for invasion across continents. Our findings provide critical information for prevention of additional invasions and control of existing invasive populations and are of broader relevance towards understanding the establishment and evolution of asexual populations and the forces driving biological invasion.
Background
Pycnogonida (sea spiders) is the sister group of all other extant chelicerates (spiders, scorpions and relatives) and thus represents an important taxon to inform early chelicerate evolution. Notably, phylogenetic analyses have challenged traditional hypotheses on the relationships of the major pycnogonid lineages (families), indicating external morphological traits previously used to deduce inter-familial affinities to be highly homoplastic. This erodes some of the support for phylogenetic information content in external morphology and calls for the study of additional data classes to test and underpin in-group relationships advocated in molecular analyses. In this regard, pycnogonid internal anatomy remains largely unexplored and taxon coverage in the studies available is limited.
Results
Based on micro-computed X-ray tomography and 3D reconstruction, we created a comprehensive atlas of in-situ representations of the central nervous system and midgut layout in all pycnogonid families. Beyond that, immunolabeling for tubulin and synapsin was used to reveal selected details of ganglionic architecture. The ventral nerve cord consistently features an array of separate ganglia, but some lineages exhibit extended composite ganglia, due to neuromere fusion. Further, inter-ganglionic distances and ganglion positions relative to segment borders vary, with an anterior shift in several families. Intersegmental nerves target longitudinal muscles and are lacking if the latter are reduced. Across families, the midgut displays linear leg diverticula. In Pycnogonidae, however, complex multi-branching diverticula occur, which may be evolutionarily correlated with a reduction of the heart.
Conclusions
Several gross neuroanatomical features are linked to external morphology, including intersegmental nerve reduction in concert with trunk segment fusion, or antero-posterior ganglion shifts in partial correlation to trunk elongation/compaction. Mapping on a recent phylogenomic phylogeny shows disjunct distributions of these traits. Other characters show no such dependency and help to underpin closer affinities in sub-branches of the pycnogonid tree, as exemplified by the tripartite subesophageal ganglion of Pycnogonidae and Rhynchothoracidae. Building on this gross anatomical atlas, future studies should now aim to leverage the full potential of neuroanatomy for phylogenetic interrogation by deciphering pycnogonid nervous system architecture in more detail, given that pioneering work on neuron subsets revealed complex character sets with unequivocal homologies across some families.
Abstract
Two decades after the discovery of adult‐born neurons in the brains of decapod crustaceans, the deutocerebral proliferative system (DPS) producing these neural lineages has become a model of adult neurogenesis in invertebrates. Studies on crayfish have provided substantial insights into the anatomy, cellular dynamics, and regulation of the DPS. Contrary to traditional thinking, recent evidence suggests that the neurogenic niche in the crayfish DPS lacks self‐renewing stem cells, its cell pool being instead sustained via integration of hemocytes generated by the innate immune system. Here, we investigated the origin, division and migration patterns of the adult‐born neural progenitor (NP) lineages in detail. We show that the niche cell pool is not only replenished by hemocyte integration but also by limited numbers of symmetric cell divisions with some characteristics reminiscent of interkinetic nuclear migration. Once specified in the niche, first generation NPs act as transit‐amplifying intermediate NPs that eventually exit and produce multicellular clones as they move along migratory streams toward target brain areas. Different clones may migrate simultaneously in the streams but occupy separate tracks and show spatio‐temporally flexible division patterns. Based on this, we propose an extended DPS model that emphasizes structural similarities to pseudostratified neuroepithelia in other arthropods and vertebrates. This model includes hemocyte integration and intrinsic cell proliferation to synergistically counteract niche cell pool depletion during the animal's lifespan. Further, we discuss parallels to recent findings on mammalian adult neurogenesis, as both systems seem to exhibit a similar decoupling of proliferative replenishment divisions and consuming neurogenic divisions.
Analysis of partial migration strategies of Central European raptors based on ring re-encounter data
(2018)
The phenomenon of partial migration in birds in
which some individuals of a population are migratory while others stay in the breeding area is of increasing scientific interest. The strategies of partial migratory raptors from Central Europe are, however, unclear for most species. We analysed ring re-encounter data of Common Kestrels Falco tinnunculus, Eurasian Sparrowhawks Accipter nisus and Common Buzzards Buteo buteo ringed in Germany in terms of distances and directions between ringing and re-encounter sites. We investigated possible differences between sexes and age classes, as well as effects of ringing region, seasonal weather (in the form of North Atlantic Oscillation indices) and long-term temporal changes (including climate change) on migratory strategies by means of generalized linear models. We found that migration is mostly conducted by juveniles, although migratory adults were also found. In general, males tend to migrate less than females and juveniles less than adults.
Kestrels showed differences between age classes and sexes and they responded to weather in summer and autumn. The migration activities of Kestrels decreased over years. Sparrowhawks from different regions showed no differences in migration activity and no responses to long-term temporal changes. They did not respond to seasonal weather either. Buzzards showed strong responses to winter weather (‘winter escapes’) predominantly in highland regions, and a reduction of migratory intensity probably due to global warming.
The explanatory power of ringing data, however, is limited by low re-encounter rates and temporal and spatial heterogeneity in re-encounter probability. Spatial heterogeneity mainly depends on the distribution of observers as well as on their willingness to report a re-encountered ring to the corresponding ringing scheme. We analyzed a data set of ringing and re-encounter data of Kestrels, Buzzards and Sparrowhawks provided by the EURING Data Bank. We calculated monthly re-encounter rates across Europe and, for different time periods, we predicted re-encounters for individuals of these species ringed in Germany, on the assumption that re-encounter probabilities are evenly distributed at the highest value observed within the respective home ranges. Subsequently, we tested for correlation between re-encounter rates and human population density. The number of predicted re-encounters exceed the observed by 50-300 %. We found differences between monthly re-encounter rates and between different prediction periods. Distances (between ringing and re-encounter sites) differ significantly between observations and predicted re-encounters, with higher distances in predictions. Correlation between re-encounter rates and human population density is significant, but correlation coefficients are low (ρ = 0.291-0.511). Correcting for observer heterogeneity can help to analyze ring re-encounter data e.g. in terms of dispersal and migration. However, a comprehensive data collection and a digitalization of possible prior data records by the respective ringing schemes may allow advances in this method even further.
Main drivers for biodiversity loss in terrestrial ecosystems are changes in land use, climate change, enhanced nitrogen deposition and biotic exchange (invasive species). These drivers also affect dry, nutrient-poor open anthropo-zoogenic inland and coastal heathlands which often harbor a high biodiversity. To counteract biodiversity loss in coastal ecosystems, a basic step is the assessment of the various threats. Therefore it is important to select suitable model organisms for analyses of biodiversity dynamics. In this thesis the three arthropod groups Orthoptera (Ensifera and Caelifera), carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) and spiders (Araneae) were studied, as they are very useful indicators. Besides sampling of the three arthropod groups vegetation and microclimate parameters were recorded. The studies were done between 2008 and 2010 in the coastal heathland on the Baltic island of Hiddensee, Germany. The main aim of the thesis was to analyze the impact of three drivers of heathland biodiversity loss (succession, grass encroachment, moss invasion) on the selected indicator arthropod groups. Based on this multi-level and -species approach, implications for the conservation of coastal heathlands are given. The results show that successional processes and grass encroachment have strong impact on species richness and abundance, species composition and functional groups, as well as life-history traits and functional diversity of the arthropod groups. Main findings were: Orthoptera species richness was highest in the intermediate stages (heath encroached by grasses and heath with shrubs) because of higher habitat heterogeneity and higher food supply (grasses). Opposed to that, species richness of ground-dwelling carabid beetles and spiders did not differ among the five successional stages, which contradicts the ‘habitat heterogeneity hypothesis’. In contrast to species richness, functional diversity differed among successional stages. The concept of functional diversity – which integrates species life-history trait data – therefore might be particularly suitable for biodiversity research, while the explanatory power of species richness alone might not be sufficient. The species compositions of all three taxa changed remarkably along the coastal heathland gradient indicating a high species turnover. In particular, open, dynamic habitats (‘grey dunes’ and ‘dwarf-shrub heath’) could be separated. Here, several specialized, xerothermic and threatened species occurred due to the extreme habitat conditions, but are displaced during grass and shrub encroachment. On a smaller spatial scale, the invasion of Campylopus introflexus alters habitat conditions in grey dunes and therefore affects carabid beetle and spider species and the dominant Orthoptera species Myrmeleotettix maculatus. Species richness of carabid beetles and spiders, and the abundance of adult M. maculatus grasshoppers were reduced. Species compositions of carabids and spiders changed remarkably with a loss of several species. These negative impacts could be explained by the vegetation structure of the moss which is unsuitable for web-building spiders or large carabid beetles, and by reduced germination of higher plants and therefore reduced food supply for M. maculatus and phytophagous carabid species. Within the open coastal heathland, the mosaic of grey dunes and adjacent dwarf-shrubs is important since many species perform a habitat change during their development and, besides the scarcely vegetated, thermally benefited grey dunes, need denser vegetation of adjacent dwarf-shrubs for shelter, as song posts, or for foraging. As grey dunes harbor a high abundance and species richness of threatened and specialized, mainly xerothermic and geobiont species and are important as oviposition and nymphal habitat, they are regarded as a keystone habitat within the coastal heathland. Besides these ecological studies, two studies focused on the method of pitfall trapping. It could have been shown, that pitfall trapping might be a useful sampling method for Orthoptera in open habitats. The other study demonstrated that sampling interval has a strong influence on the capture efficiency of several arthropod groups (‘digging-in effect’). Conservation practices should aim at maintaining a heterogeneous heathland mosaic with open grey dunes and Calluna stands, in addition to scattered grassy and shrub-encroached heath for the survival of species-rich heathland arthropod assemblages with a high proportion of specialized and threatened species.
Background
Asymmetries are a widespread phenomenon in otherwise bilaterally symmetric organisms, and investigation of asymmetric structures can help us gather insights into fundamental evolutionary processes such as the selection for morphological novelties caused by behavioural changes. In insects, asymmetric genitalia have evolved in almost every order, and usually it’s the sclerotized parts and most conspicuous male phallic organs that are known to exhibit asymmetries. While external copulatory organs in insects have often been subject to investigations concerning asymmetries and the evolution thereof, internal reproductive structures have received far less attention. Here we describe the internal and external male genitalia in three species of Austrophasmatidae, Mantophasmatodea, using μ-CT imaging and light microscopy. Mantophasmatodea is the most recently discovered insect order, and with 21 species described to date, it is among the smallest insect orders currently known.
Results
We confirm that male heelwalkers exhibit asymmetries in the external genitalia and associated structures, represented by asymmetric phallic lobes and cerci. Moreover, we found an extreme asymmetry within the internal male genitalia: in all adult males investigated (N = 5), the seminal vesicle, a dilatation of the vas deferens, was only developed on the right side of the male while missing on the left side.
Conclusion
The false-male-above mating position exhibited by Mantophasmatodea and especially the long copulation duration of ca. 3 days might select for this unusual absence asymmetry of the left seminal vesicle. If this holds true for all heelwalker species, this absence asymmetry constitutes another autapomorphy for Austrophasmatidae or even the insect order Mantophasmatodea.
Das Gram-positive Bakterium Staphylococcus aureus besiedelt die menschliche Haut und die oberen Atemwege, z.B. die Nase. Aus noch unbekannten Gründen können die Bakterien gelegentlich einen pathogenen Charakter entwickeln und Krankheiten wie Furunkulose, Pneumonien oder Sepsis verursachen. Dieses pathogene Potenzial in Verbindung mit dem Auftreten von zahlreichen Antibiotika-Resistenzen in vielen klinisch relevanten S. aureus-Stämmen stellt ein Risiko für die menschliche Gesundheit dar. Deshalb ist es notwendig, potenzielle Effekte der bakteriellen Produkte, die die eukaryotischen Wirtszellen relevanter Organsysteme beeinflussen könnten, zu erforschen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es deshalb, spezifische Elemente der frühen Signaltransduktion, der Genregulation und der physiologischen Antworten von humanen immortalisierten Atemwegsepithelzellen (S9) auf Kontakt mit Staphylococcus aureus-Zellkulturüberständen sowie rekombinant hergestellten individuellen Virulenzfaktoren (Hämolysin A (Hla, ein porenformendes Toxin) und Hämolysin B (Hlb, ein Enzym mit Sphingomyelinase-Aktivität)) zu untersuchen. Diese Ansätze dienen dazu, Hinweise auf die Identität sezernierter Stoffwechselprodukte von S. aureus zu erhalten, die in den eukaryotischen Wirtszellen zu direkten Abwehr- oder Vermeidungsreaktionen (angeborene Immunität) oder zu Bakterien-induziertem „Fehlverhalten“ führen, das möglicherweise (Mit-)Ursache der Pathogenität einiger Stämme des Bakteriums ist. Quantitative Western-Blot-Analysen mit löslichen Proteinextrakten von S9-Zellen offenbarten dabei eine Aktivierung der Erk-Typ-MAPK, der p38 MAPK und der Akt1/3, aber keine Aktivierung der c-Jun N-terminalen Kinase (JNK) oder Akt2 infolge der Behandlung mit steril-filtrierten S. aureus-Überständen aus der exponentiellen Wachstumsphase (OD540nm = 1), der stationären Wachstumsphase (OD540nm = 10) bzw. nach der Behandlung mit rekombinant hergestellten S. aureus Hämolysinen (rHla, rHlb). Analysen der Produkte sogenannter „früher Gene“ zeigten eine moderate Erhöhung der Expression von c-Jun und Egr-1, und eine stärkere Erhöhung der Expression von c-Fos nach der Behandlung der S9-Zellen mit den bakteriellen Überständen oder rekombinanten Toxinen (rHla, rHlb). Da Atemwegsepithelzellen bei Kontakt mit potenziell pathogenen Bakterien bzw. sekretorischen Faktoren dieser Bakterien Chemokine zur Rekrutierung von Neutrophilen sekretieren, (speziell IL-8), wurde ein Multiplex-Assay-System eingesetzt, mit dem es möglich war, 11 verschiedene Zytokine im Kulturüberstand der S9-Zellen nach Behandlung der Zellen mit den bakteriellen OD10-Überständen bzw. rekombinanten Hla oder Hlb zu analysieren. Die S9-Zellen reagierten dabei auf die Behandlung mit dem Überstand, Hla oder Hlb mit der Sekretion der pro-inflammatorischen Zytokine IL-8, IFN-γ und IL-6, und diese Zytokin-Expression wurde teilweise vermittelt über die Signalwege der Erk-Typ-MAPK und der p38 MAPK. Weiter konnte gezeigt werden, dass Atemwegsepithelzellen infolge der Behandlung mit bakteriellem Überstand bzw. Hla Zellformveränderungen unterliegen und ihre Integrität verlieren. Dieses könnte parazelluläre Wege im Epithel öffnen, und so den Bakterien ermöglichen, ins Innere des Wirtskörpers vorzudringen.
BatNet: a deep learning-based tool for automated bat species identification from camera trap images
(2023)
Automated monitoring technologies can increase the efficiency of ecological data collection and support data-driven conservation. Camera traps coupled with infrared light barriers can be used to monitor temperate-zone bat assemblages at underground hibernacula, where thousands of individuals of multiple species can aggregate in winter. However, the broad-scale adoption of such photo-monitoring techniques is limited by the time-consuming bottleneck of manual image processing. Here, we present BatNet, an open-source, deep learning-based tool for automated identification of 13 European bat species from camera trap images. BatNet includes a user-friendly graphical interface, where it can be retrained to identify new bat species or to create site-specific models to improve detection accuracy at new sites. Model accuracy was evaluated on images from both trained and untrained sites, and in an ecological context, where community- and species-level metrics (species diversity, relative abundance, and species-level activity patterns) were compared between human experts and BatNet. At trained sites, model performance was high across all species (F1-score: 0.98–1). At untrained sites, overall classification accuracy remained high (96.7–98.2%), when camera placement was comparable to the training images (<3 m from the entrance; <45° angle relative to the opening). For atypical camera placements (>3 m or >45° angle), retraining the detector model with 500 site-specific annotations achieved an accuracy of over 95% at all sites. In the ecological case study, all investigated metrics were nearly identical between human experts and BatNet. Finally, we exemplify the ability to retrain BatNet to identify a new bat species, achieving an F1-score of 0.99 while maintaining high classification accuracy for all original species. BatNet can be implemented directly to scale up the deployment of camera traps in Europe and enhance bat population monitoring. Moreover, the pretrained model can serve as a baseline for transfer learning to automatize the image-based identification of bat species worldwide.
Deflected by the barrier function of topographical structures such as high mountain ranges, open water bodies or desert, migrating birds concentrate at certain points or corridors referred to as ‘bottlenecks’. An area like this was discovered at Mount Besh Barmag (Azerbaijan) in autumn 2007, but the data gathered during a four-week survey was insufficient to do more than hint at the existence of a major bird migration bottleneck. Therefore, a comprehensive bird migration study was conducted to analyse the magnitude of this potential bottleneck site. The study covers the periods from August to mid-November 2011 and from March to the end of May 2012 and includes daily counts at three observation points focusing on three different migrant types: passerine, waterbirds and soaring birds. In addition, a sound recorder with an omnidirectional microphone collected bird migration calls by both day and night. In total, 278 bird species were observed in an estimated passage of 1,239,369–1,514,267 diurnally migrating individuals in autumn 2011 and 646,733–817,183 individuals in spring 2012. Fifteen species passed through the study area in numbers exceeding 1% of their world populations and 34 species in more than 1% of their flyway populations in at least one of the observation periods. 84% of the observed migrating birds in autumn 2011 and 95% of them in spring 2012 passed through at heights below 50 m above ground exposing them imminently to the danger of collision with obstacles. In the analysis of nocturnal sound recordings, 119 bird species were identified of which 106 were expected to occur as migrants, and calculated estimates revealed the occurrence of 108,986 calls in autumn 2011 and 33,348 calls in spring 2012. The volume of diurnal bird migration emerging from the data with respect to species number and number of individuals is certainly a strong indication of the existence of a major bird migration bottleneck at Besh Barmag. On account of methodological constraints, the high number of night flight calls can only hint at a nocturnal bird migration bottleneck and confirmatory research aided by visual methods (radar, thermal imaging) is necessary to back up the acoustic results. The Besh Barmag bottleneck offers a great opportunity to establish a standardised long-term monitoring programme to investigate avian population dynamics in the vast and little known Eurasian landmass. Acoustic-based monitoring might be a cost-effective method, but it is limited to a few vocally prolific species only. The aim should rather be the establishment of a bird observatory as already successfully installed in a number of European bird migration bottlenecks.
Midges are small mosquitoes that can transmit pathogens to susceptible hosts through their blood-sucking act. They are known as biological vectors that can transmit the bluetongue virus (BTV) and the Schmallenberg virus (SBV) to ruminants, among others. Various vector control measures can be used to curtail the spread of the virus during an epidemic. However, for effective vector measures, it is essential to have profound knowledge of the role of biting midges as vectors, as well as their biology and phenology. For several years, midges were not in the focus of research and there are still considerable gaps in knowledge. Therefore, the present work examines various aspects of biting midges of the genus Culicoides, whose function as vectors of the Schmallenberg virus was already proven at the beginning of the project.
The aim of the first part of this work was to determine the percentage of infected midges in various German areas in order to determine the influence of Culicoides midges within the virus epidemic. For this purpose, samples, collected during 2011 and 2012 as part of monitoring projects, were analysed. Additionally, in early 2013, various farms in southern and eastern regions of Germany, where SBV was considered to be largely absent, were equipped with UV traps. The small number of virus-positive samples did not allow a more precise assessment of the viral spread in culicoid midges. Instead, it revealed the importance to conduct targeted samplings of its vectors during an acute outbreak. Additionally, the presented results and statements made by several animal owners, gave reason to believe, that SBV must have affected the southern and eastern parts of Germany earlier than actually assumed. This would consequently have led to an increased immunity in host animals, which provides a reasonable explanation for the low positive values and is in agrement with the statements made by various farmers.
The second part of this work identifies the conditions and surrounding factors under which acute SBV diseases emerged in ruminants in the cold winter months of 2012/2013. After the diagnosis of several acute SBV infections of sheep in a sheep pen in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, culicoid midge activity could be proven. This demonstrates that, suitable conditions for its vectors given, an infection of SBV can also take place during wintertime. A more detailed analysis of the surrounding conditions revealed, that the outdoor temperatures during infection were consistently at values of at least 5-9 ° C for several consecutive days, which enabled the flight and blood-sucking activity of the midges within
the shelter.
Midge activity during wintertime represents a crucial component in understanding how the virus can outlast the cold season. A constant midge presence could lead to a low but permanent infection rate throughout the cold months, enabling a recurrence of the pathogen the following year. Instead, a longer vector-free timeperiod would point to other mechanisms that allow the virus to re-occur in Germany on a yearly basis. Thus, the acute cases of SBV infections in sheep rose the question of critical threshold temperatures, representing the beginning of midge activity. The investigation of several stables sheltering cattle, horse or sheep addressed potential differences between indoor and outdoor activity and whether the type of host animal has an influence on the beginning of the flight. In the third part of this work, a long vector-free period and several differences in the onset of midge activity between different types of host animals could be detected. It could also be illustrated that the progression of the flight began differently depending on the present type of host animal/type of stable. For all cattle stables and the sheep barn the first midge activity was measured indoors, whereas for horses, culicoid midges were found to become active either at the same time or almost simultaneously inside and outside the animal shelters. This suggests that the horse stables do not represent good breeding sites for midges, which might be attributed to husbandry practices. In addition, it was possible to determine specific threshold temperatures for the different types of host animals and for various midge species. Altogether, the late beginning of flight, measured at the beginning of March, was surprising. This raises more questions of alternative mechanisms enabling the virus to outlast the winter months. The documentation of species-specific threshold temperatures can be a useful tool f.i. within automated large stables to keep indoor temperatures under the threshold value in order to postpone the onset of culicoid activity of various vector species. This may help to prevent virus transmissions during winter or to evoke a delay in spring, making it more difficult for the virus to overwinter.
To be able to start instant defense measures during an ongoing virus epidemic, which is transmitted by Culicoides midges, reducing the ground-living midge larvae offers a promising option during the warm season. For targeted vector control measures, it is important to know the breeding sites of culicoid midge species. Therefore, four agriculturally used biotopes were sampled and compared to four biotopes of a forest-dominated area. The results clearly show that meadows per se are not suitable breeding habitats for Culicoides
spp. Only the influence of livestock animals induces their potential as developmental sites. The various biotopes of the forest-dominated region were less subject to anthropogenic influences. Although fewer individual midges were found here, it displayed a higher biodiversity than the agricultural habitats. These results demonstrate once more the potential of forests in regards to the preservation of biodiversity. In Particular, the alder on fen site revealed most midge species and also the highest number of collected specimens among the studied biotopes. That illustrates the high impact of this specific humid type of habitat in respect to species diversity and the need of its perpetuation.
As part of this work, new breeding sites for a variety of culicoid species were identified and assigned to the usually rather short profiles of known Culicoides species. For one part, previous observations of chosen substrates could be consolidated. Furthermore, new breeding substrates were identified. Additionally, information of abiotic factors such as ph-value, soil moisture or organic compound of all sampled breeding substrates obtained from a soil analysis, extended the knowledge about the species-specific choice of breeding habitats and their characteristical traits. The additional knowledge about potential breeding substrates and their soil factors might be useful for future epidemiological modelling approaches. It can also raise the effectiveness and accuracy of targeted vector control measurements during an epidemic outbreak. Therefore, it may indirectly contribute to the preservation of endangered rare species. However, there is still an enormous need for more research before this goal can be fully achieved.
Sexual selection favours traits that confer a competitive advantage in access to mates and to their gametes. This results in males evolving a wide array of adaptations that may be conflictual with female’s interests and even to collateral negative effects on female’s lifespan or reproductive success. Harmful male adaptations are diverse and can be extreme. For example, males of various species evolved adaptations that incur physical damage to the female during copulation, referred to as traumatic mating. Most of these adaptations provide males with a competitive fertilization advantage due to the injection of sperm or non-sperm compounds through the wound. In the spider taxonomical literature, alterations of external genital structures have been reported in females and may result from male inflicted damage during copulation. Contrarily to other cases of traumatic mating, the transfer of sperm or non-sperm compounds does not seem to be the target of selection for external female genital mutilation (EFGM) to evolve. Therefore, investigating EFGM may provide valuable information to extend our understanding of the evolution of harmful male adaptations. In this thesis, I explore this newly discovered phenomenon and combine empirical and theoretical approaches to investigate the causes and consequences of EFGM evolution from male and female perspectives. My findings suggest that EFGM is a natural phenomenon and is potentially widespread throughout spider taxa. I demonstrate the proximal mechanism by which the male copulatory organ mutilates the external female genitalia during genital coupling and show that the mutilation results in full monopolization of the female as mutilated females are unable to remate. Using a theoretical approach, I investigated the conditions for the evolution of EFGM. The model developed suggests that EFGM evolution is favoured for last male sperm precedence and for costs to females that can be relatively high as the male-male competition increases. I present the results of physiological measurements that suggest there is no physiological cost of genital mutilation resulting from healing and immune responses for the female. Finally, I report the results of a behavioural experiment that suggest that females have control over the mutilation and selectively allow or avoid mutilation. These findings suggest that EFGM benefits males by securing paternity, that males and females may have evolved to reduce the costs incurred by the female and that female choice may also play a role in EFGM evolution.
In agricultural grasslands, management practice highly determines reproductive success for ground-nesting bird species. The most effective conservation measure is the delay of first mowing dates until broods fledge or bird friendly mowing. Late mowing often implies economical losses for farmers and may increase land use abandonment, which will, in turn, cause habitat deterioration. Thus, grassland bird conservation involves the challenge to protect broods against land use and to promote an appropriate management to sustain habitat quality at the same time. Because of their late and extended breeding season Corncrakes Crex crex are in particular vulnerable to frequent mowing which increases nest destruction, chick mortality and habitat loss.
This thesis aims to gain knowledge on favourable habitat characteristics and brood protection in relation with grassland management to derive implications for the conservation of Corncrake breeding sites in floodplain meadows. Study area is the Lower Oder Valley National Park in northeastern Germany that holds a Corncrake population of 50 to 250 calling males. The study covered two study periods, before (1998-2000) and after (2012-2015) the implementation of new Corncrake conservation measures allowing inferences on the effects of different timing and intensity of mowing for brood protection and habitat conservation.
Breeding was only confirmed on meadows with high forb cover, low sedge cover, low litter heights and a close location to ditches. Radio-tracked females preferred areas with high cover of forbs (> 30%) and a distinct relief heterogeneity, which was associated with increased vegetation diversity. Vegetation characteristics on sites with day calling activity of males showed more similarity with breeding sites than with sites only used for nocturnal calling, supporting the assumption that diurnal calling indicates the occurrence of females. Favoured vegetation structure was best provided by mowing in the preceding year. Low-intensity grazing was less effective in reducing litter and sedge cover, especially when conducted late in the season. In the absence of management, meadows rapidly overgrow and dense litter accumulates from dead plant material in eutrophic floodplains, which increases walking resistance for Corncrakes and may impede prey accessibility. Plant species richness and forb cover declined after land use cessation. Male Corncrakes abandoned calling sites on meadows unmanaged for longer periods.
Besides the availability of suitable nesting sites, food supply and nest predation risk are also related to vegetation structure and may indirectly influence the habitat quality. Faecal samples of Corncrakes consisted mainly of beetles and their larvae, followed by snails, spiders and earthworms. Invertebrate biomass, sampled with pitfall-traps, was twice as high, the numbers of large ground beetles even five times higher on previously unmanaged than on managed meadows. Invertebrate abundance was highest in the first and second years after land use abandonment, but strongly decreased afterwards to a similar level like under annual management. Therefore, unmown refuge strips for Corncrake protection and alternating mowing also enhance invertebrate prey resources in floodplain meadows.
Mammals caused the majority of all observed artificial ground nest predations. Nest predation risk was higher on previously unmanaged than on managed sites. Unmanaged meadows probably attract mammalian predators, because they provide a more favourable vegetation structure for foraging and harbour high numbers of small rodents, increasing also the risk of incidental nest predations. These findings suggest that an annual removal of vegetation, if conducted late in the season to protect grassland birds may reduce predation risk of ground nests in the subsequent year.
Whereas during 1998-2000 half of the study area was managed by the end of July, land use was delayed on meadows occupied by Corncrakes until at least 15 July or 15 August during 2012-2015. On meadows mown between 15 July and 15 August refuge strips were applied. The majority of Corncrake broods were started in the second half of May and mowing postponement until 15 August allows 80% of chicks to fledge without disturbance in the study area. In 65% of broods chicks reach independence (> 14 days old) until 15 July and can be protected by Corncrake friendly mowing because then they are large enough to successfully escape during mowing. Both adults and chicks survived in 10 m wide refuge strips. Because most birds tried to leave the unmown block for the first time when it was up to 30 m wide and only 15 to 30 m wide strips served as temporary habitat for unfledged chicks from mowing to departure, 10 m should be considered as the absolute minimum width for refuge strips.
The strong reduction of land use especially during July should have allowed more chicks to survive until fledging in 2012-2015 than 1998-2000. Besides the protection of nests and higher chick survival, the decline of mowing intensity increased the extent of habitat available for second breeding attempts. In 2012-2015, broods were initiated until late July in the study area. Male Corncrakes showed continuous arrival and departure during the breeding season. Similar departure rates were estimated by a multi-state occupancy model and for radio-tracked males in the same study area and periods, which both left their home ranges spontaneous and due to the impact of mowing. Compared to 1998-2000, total departure of males during June and July was reduced by 50% in 2012-2015, when more calling sites were protected from mowing. Although male Corncrakes show high intra-seasonal dispersal due to their sequential polygamous breeding system, postponed land use should have increased mating opportunities and re-nesting at first breeding sites.
Therefore, future directions of Corncrake conservation in eutrophic floodplains should address the increase of annual late mowing to protect broods and maintain favourable habitat conditions by creating a more flexible mowing regime adjusted to actual occurrence of Corncrakes. This requires expert advice to farmers based on an intense monitoring of calling Corncrakes. Repeated nocturnal surveys during May and June are highly recommended because low detection probability in combination with constant departure substantially underestimated the number of males present. Additionally, diurnal calling activity could improve the identification of breeding sites and timing could be used to estimate chick age in July to select sites for Corncrake friendly mowing. Because currently late mowing dates are unattractive for farmers conservation actions should along with financial compensations for mowing after 15 August promote the utilization of late-cut grass with poor nutrient quality for combustion. Energy production could provide an alternative income for farmers operating in conservation areas with delayed land use dates and will increase their acceptance of Corncrake protection measures.
Changes in food characteristics reveal indirect effects of lake browning on zooplankton performance
(2020)
Abstract
Browning caused by colored dissolved organic matter is predicted to have large effects on aquatic ecosystems. However, there is limited experimental evidence about direct and indirect effects of browning on zooplankton in complex field settings. We used a combination of an ecosystem‐scale enclosure experiment and laboratory incubations to test how prolonged browning affects physiological and life‐history traits of the water flea Daphnia longispina, a key species in lake food webs, and whether any such effects are reversible. Daphnids and water were collected from enclosures in a deep clear‐water lake, where the natural plankton community had been exposed for 10 weeks to browning or to control conditions in clear water. Daphnid abundance was much lower in the brown than in the clear enclosure. Surprisingly, however, daphnids continuously kept in brown enclosure water in the laboratory showed increased metabolic performance and survival, and also produced more offspring than daphnids kept in clear enclosure water. This outcome was related to more and higher‐quality seston in brown compared to clear water. Moreover, daphnids transferred from clear to brown water or vice versa adjusted their nucleic acid and protein contents, as indicators of physiological state, to similar levels as individuals previously exposed to the respective recipient environment, indicating immediate and reversible browning effects on metabolic performance. These results demonstrate the importance of conducting experiments in settings that capture both indirect effects (i.e., emerging from species interactions in communities) and direct effects on individuals for assessing impacts of browning and other environmental changes on lakes.
Chronic Background Radiation Correlates With Sperm Swimming Endurance in Bank Voles From Chernobyl
(2022)
Sperm quantity and quality are key features explaining intra- and interspecific variation in male reproductive success. Spermatogenesis is sensitive to ionizing radiation and laboratory studies investigating acute effects of ionizing radiation have indeed found negative effects of radiation on sperm quantity and quality. In nature, levels of natural background radiation vary dramatically, and chronic effects of low-level background radiation exposure on spermatogenesis are poorly understood. The Chernobyl region offers a unique research opportunity for investigating effects of chronic low-level ionizing radiation on reproductive properties of wild organisms. We captured male bank voles (Myodes glareolus) from 24 locations in the Chernobyl exclusion zone in 2011 and 2015 and collected information on sperm morphology and kinetics. The dataset is limited in size and there overall was a relatively weak correlation between background radiation and sperm quality. Still, some correlations are worth discussing. First, mid-piece segments of spermatozoa tended to be smaller in bank vole males from areas with elevated background radiation levels. Second, we demonstrated a significant positive relationship between background radiation dose rates and the proportion of static spermatozoa among males within and among study locations after 10 as well as 60 min of incubation. Our results provide novel evidence of damaging effects of low dose ionizing radiation on sperm performance in wild rodent populations, and highlight that this topic requires further study across the natural gradients of background radiation that exist in nature.
Bats spend half of their life at roosting sites. Hence, exploring for potential roosts is an essential task for their survival, especially for those species which switch roosts regularly, such as several temperate bat species. However, localizing new roosts is a difficult task due to bats’ sensory limitations (e.g., vision, echolocation range). To compensate such constrains, it has been hypothesized that bats rely on cognitive processes like associative learning, spatial memory, social information use and memory retention for an efficient roost localization. However, no previous study has assessed these cognitive skills under natural conditions.
The aim of my thesis was to assess how individually RFID-marked, free-ranging bats use different cognitive processes when localizing suitable day roosts. For this purpose, I used a pairwise roost-quality (suitable vs. unsuitable) choice experiment with automatic monitoring and assessed bats’ cognitive processes according to different cues available. Cues were echo-reflective (spectral signature of boxes), spatial (position of the box within the experimental pair) and social (presence of conspecific at roosts), each one linked to a different cognitive process.
I found that Bechstein’s bats (Myotis bechsteinii) used associative learning to discriminate between suitable and unsuitable newly placed boxes according to their echo-reflective cues. However, when individuals returned to known suitable roosts, they relied more on spatial memory to localize them. This was evidenced by the higher proportion of visits to the unsuitable boxes after swapping box positions within the same experimental pairs. When social cues were available, bats discovered a higher number of suitable roosts and re-localized previously occupied roosts more accurately. Taken together, Bechstein’s bats used multiple cognitive processes and prioritized one process over another depending on the relevance of the cues and search context.
Memory retention of the learned association was analyzed one year later, after the bats had returned to their breeding sites from their hibernacula. I found no evidence that individuals remembered the association between roosts’ suitability and their respective echo-reflective cue. The lack of memory retention could be attributed to hibernation or the duration of the period that the bats spent away from their summer habitat without the opportunity to reinforce the association contingencies. Nevertheless, bats quickly relearned the same association in a short period of time. This emphasizes the high behavioral flexibility of the bats.
Given the ability of Bechstein’s bats to quickly learn to discriminate roosts based on their external echo-reflective cue via associative learning, I investigated whether the use of echo-reflective cues improves box detectability and further occupancy. This was also assessed in free-ranging Natterer’s (Myotis nattereri) bats and the brown long-eared bats (Plecotus auritus). I found that the use of echo-reflective cues did not improve the detectability and occupancy of newly placed boxes despite the previous experience of the colonies with such cues. There were differences among species in the number of discovered boxes, visits and roosting days. These differences could be related to the species-specific explorative behavior and roost-switching behavior. Box supplementations programs aimed to conserve or relocate bat colonies should consider these behaviors to increase their likelihood of success even when bat colonies are used to roosting in artificial shelters.
My research underlined the importance of evaluating multiple cues under natural conditions to understand how natural selection has shaped the cognitive process used for localizing resources. Cognitive field studies are logistically challenging given the number of factors to control. However, automatic monitoring techniques like the one used in this study give the possibility to deepen the understanding of the cognitive ecology of animals. I finally discuss two venues of further research to understand the spread of information within colony members about novel roosts and the recruitment dynamic to novel roosts.
Comparative neuroanatomy of the central nervous system in web-building and cursorial hunting spiders
(2023)
Spiders (Araneae) include cursorial species that stalk their prey and more stationary species that use webs for prey capture. While many cursorial hunting spiders rely on visual cues, web-building spiders use vibratory cues (mechanosensation) for prey capture. We predicted that the differences in primary sensory input between the species are mirrored by differences in the morphology/architecture of the central nervous system (CNS). Here, we investigated the CNS anatomy of four spider species, two cursorial hunters Pardosa amentata (Lycosidae) and Marpissa muscosa (Salticidae), and two web-building hunters Argiope bruennichi (Araneidae) and Parasteatoda tepidariorum (Theridiidae). Their CNS was analyzed using Bodian silver impregnations, immunohistochemistry, and microCT analysis. We found that there are major differences between species in the secondary eye pathway of the brain that pertain to first-order, second-order, and higher order brain centers (mushroom bodies [MB]). While P. amentata and M. muscosa have prominent visual neuropils and MB, these are much reduced in the two web-building species. Argiope bruennichi lacks second-order visual neuropils but has specialized photoreceptors that project into two distinct visual neuropils, and P. tepidariorum lacks MB, suggesting that motion vision might be absent in this species. Interestingly, the differences in the ventral nerve cord are much less pronounced, but the web-building spiders have proportionally larger leg neuropils than the cursorial spiders. Our findings suggest that the importance of visual information is much reduced in web-building spiders, compared to cursorial spiders, while processing of mechanosensory information requires the same major circuits in both web-building and cursorial hunting spiders.
Im Gegensatz zu den Hexapoda und Crustacea (Tetraconata) liegen nur wenige Daten zur Architektur des Nervensystems der Chilopoda vor. Ein besonderer Fokus in neuroanatomischen Studien der Arthropoda liegt auf der internen Organisation des Deutocerebrum. Das Deutocerebrum ist ein primärer Verschaltungsort antennaler Sinnesmodalitäten. Es wurde von Schachtner et al. (2005) gezeigt, dass bei Vertretern der Hexapoda und Crustacea spezifische Synapomorphien in Bezug auf die olfaktorischen Glomeruli festzustellen sind. Durch den Einsatz verschiedenster histologischer Techniken, immunhistochemischer sowie histochemischer Methoden, anterograder Backfill-Anfärbungen und der dreidimensionalen Rekonstruktion wurde das Deutocerebrum der Chilopoda in dieser Dissertation untersucht um zu verifizieren, ob das Deutocerebrum ähnlich zu dem der Tetraconata ausgeprägt und ob diese innerhalb der Mandibulata homologisierbar sind. Zudem wurden die gewonnen Daten mit neuroanatomischen Studien zu den Chelicerata verglichen. Das Deutocerebrum der Chilopoda ist durch mehrere Merkmale charakterisiert: (1) Innervierung durch antennale sensorische Neuriten, (2) ein anterior gelegener olfaktorischer Lobus, (3) der posterior gelegene Corpus lamellosum, (4) afferente Projektionen aus der Antenne die in das Unterschlundganglion projizieren sowie (5) Projektionstrakte zwischen dem Protocerebrum und dem olfaktorischen Lobus. Neuroanatomische Daten zeigen, dass ein Schwestergruppenverhältnis zwischen Myriapoda und Chelicerata höchst unwahrscheinlich ist, da das durch sensorische Anhänge innervierte Neuromer bei den Chelicerata nicht durch ein mechanosensorisches Neuropil charakterisiert ist. Basierend auf den Befunden der untersuchten Chilopoda ergibt sich als Apomorphie der Mandibulata, dass der sensorische Eingang durch die homologe deutocerebrale Antenne zwei distinkte Neuropilbereiche innerviert. Sensorische Informationen werden hauptsächlich von antennalen Sensillen wahrgenommen. Mit Ausnahme der Scutigeromorpha, lagen für alle höheren Taxa der Chilopoda Daten zur Struktur und Diversität antennaler Sensillen vor. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte diese Lücke geschlossen werden und ein Vergleich der antennalen Sensillen innerhalb der Chilopoda durchgeführt werden. Innerhalb der Chilopoda lassen sich für die Scutigeromorpha drei einzigartige antennale Strukturen feststellen: (1) der Besitz von langen Antennen mit Noden, die „sensory cones“ tragen, (2) der Besitz eines zweigliedrigen Schaftes, der das Schaftorgan trägt und (3) der Besitz des Beak-like Sensillums. Ein dritter Aspekt dieser Arbeit behandelt verhaltensbiologische Untersuchungen bei Vertretern der Chilopoda. Zusammenfassend zeigen die durchgeführten Experimente, dass die Chilopoda (im Speziellen Scutigera coleoptrata) Sinnesreize über die Antenne wahrnehmen kann, spezifische neuronale Strukturen für die Verarbeitung besitzen und auf olfaktorische Reize reagieren.
There is an increasingly urgent need to understand and predict how organisms will cope with the environmental consequences of global climate change. Adaptation in any form can be mediated by genetic adaptation and/or by phenotypic plasticity. Disentangling these two adaptive processes is critical in understanding and predicting adaptive responses to environmental change. Usually, disentangling genetic adaptation from phenotypic plasticity requires common garden experiments conducted under controlled laboratory conditions. While these experiments are powerful, it is often difficult to translate the results into natural populations and extrapolate to naturally occurring phenotypic variation. One solution to this problem is provided by the many examples of invasive species that exhibit wide phenotypic variation and that reproduce asexually. Besides selecting the appropriate in situ model, one must carefully choose a relevant trait to investigate. Ecomorphology has been a central theme in evolutionary biology because it reflects how organisms can adapt to their environment through their morphology. Intraspecific ecomorphological studies are especially well suited to identify adaptive pressures and provide insights into the microevolutionary mechanisms leading to the phenotypic differentiation.
One excellent candidate for an intraspecific ecomorphological study aiming to understand adaptation through genetic adaptation and phenotypic plasticity is the invasive New Zealand mudsnail Potamopyrgus antipodarum Gray (1853). This ovoviviparous snail features high variability in shell morphology and has successfully invaded a wide range of fresh- and brackish water habitats around the world. The evolutionary and ecological situations in this species’ native and invasive ranges is drastically different. In New Zealand, P. antipodarum’s native range, sexual and asexual individuals coexist and experience selective pressure by sterilizing endoparasites. By contrast, only a few asexual lineages have been established in invaded regions around the globe, where parasite infection is extremely rare. Here, we took advantage of the low genetic diversity among asexually reproducing European individuals in an attempt to characterize the relative contribution of genetic variation and phenotypic plasticity to the wide variation in shell morphology of this snail.
Analysing the ecomorphology of 425 European P. antipodarum in a geometric-morphometric framework, using brood size as proxy for fecundity, and mtDNA and nuclear SNPs to account for relatedness and identify reproductive mode, we hypothesized that 1) shell variation in the invasive range should be adaptive with respect to colonization of novel habitats, and 2) at least some of the variation might be caused by phenotypic plasticity. We then expanded our ecomorphological scope by analysing 996 native specimens, expecting 1) genetic and morphological diversity to be higher in the native range compared to invaded regions; 2) morphological diversity to be higher in sexual compared to asexual individuals according to the frozen niche hypothesis; and 3) shell morphology to be habitat specific, hence adaptative. In a last part, we used computational fluid dynamics simulations to calculate relative drag and lift forces of three shell morphologies (globular, intermediate, and slender). Here, we tested the overall hypothesis that shell morphology in gastropods is an adaptation against dislodgement through lift rather than drag forces, which would explain the counterintuitive presence of wider shells with shorter spires in lotic environments. With a final flow tank experiment, we tested the specific hypothesis that the dislocation velocity of living snails is positively linked to foot size, and that the latter can be predicted by shell morphology, in particular the aperture area as assumed by several authors.
As expected, we found genetic and morphological diversity to be higher in native than in invasive snails, but surprisingly no higher morphological diversity in sexual versus asexual individuals. The relationships between shell morphology, habitat, and fecundity were complex. Shape variation was primarily linked to genetic relatedness, but specific environmental factors including flow rate induced similar shell shapes. By contrast, shell size was largely explained by environmental factors. Fecundity was correlated with size, but showed trade-offs with shape in increasingly extreme conditions. With increasing flow and in smaller habitats such as springs, the trend of shell shape becoming wider was reversed, i.e. snails with slender shells were brooding more embryos. This increase in fitness was explained by our CFD simulations: in lotic habitats, slender shells experience less drag and lift forces compared to globular shells. We found no correlation between foot size and shell shape or aperture area showing that the assumed aperture/foot area correlation should be used with caution and cannot be generalized for all aquatic gastropod species. Finally, shell morphology and foot size were not related to dislodgement speed in our flow tank experiment. We concluded that the relationship of shell morphology and flow velocity is more complex than assumed. Hence, other traits must play a major role in decreasing dislodgement risk in stream gastropods, e.g. specific behaviours or pedal mucus stickiness. Although we did not find that globular shells are adaptations decreasing dislodgement risk, we cannot rule out that they are still flow related adaptations. For instance, globular shells are more crush-resistant and might therefore represent a flow adaptation in terms of diminishing damage caused by tumbling after dislodgement or against lotic specific crush-type predators.
At this point, we can conclude that shell morphology in P. antipodarum varies at least in part as an adaptation to specific environmental factors. This study shows how essential it is to reveal how plastic, genetically as well as phenotypically, adaptive traits in species can be and to identify the causal factors and how these adaptations affect the fitness in order to better predict how organisms will cope with changing environmental conditions.
Increasing environmental changes primarily due to anthropogenic impacts, are affecting organisms all over the planet. In general, scientists distinguish between three different ways in which organisms can respond to environmental changes in their habitat: extinction, dispersal and adaptation. An example of organisms which are highly adaptable and can easily cope with new and changing environments are invasive species which are able to colonize new habitats with only few individuals. To successfully survive in their new environment, invasive species adapt fast to novel abiotic and biotic parameters, such as different temperature regimes. Phenotypic plasticity which enables organisms to quickly modify their phenotype to new environmental conditions, explains the success in adaptation of invasive species.
While underlying mechanisms of phenotypic plasticity are not fully understood, one possible “motor” of phenotypic plasticity is epigenetics. Especially DNA methylation could explain the fast changes of the organism’s phenotype due to plasticity when experiencing changing environments, as invasive species do. DNA methylation could even contribute to the adaptation of invasive species via phenotypic plasticity, especially with clonally reproducing species. Methods such as common garden experiments with clonally reproducing species are a useful tool to differentiate between phenotypic plasticity and genetic adaptation because the confusing effects of genetic variation are lowered in clonally reproducing species.
Our overall goal was to evaluate the genetic adaptive potential of New Zealand mud snail (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) populations from Europe since they went through an extreme bottleneck after colonizing Europe only 180-360 generations ago. Seemingly, two different clonal lineages colonized Europe because two 16 s rRNA and cytochrome b haplotypes were found across different European countries, haplotypes t and z. The NZMS is a highly successful invasive species that is nowadays nearly globally distributed. The shells of the NZMS show a habitat-dependent high variability and are a fitness-relevant trait. The high variability in shell morphology is due to both genetic variation and phenotypic plasticity. To disentangle genetic from environmental effects on the shell morphology NZMS, we conducted a common garden experiment. We kept asexually reproducing females from eleven European populations in climate cabinets with three different temperatures to produce offspring. We compared shell size and shape across three generations using the geometric morphometrics approach. Furthermore, we estimated reaction norms, maternal effects, broad-sense heritability, the coefficient of genetic variation (CVA) and evolvability (IA) in shell size and shape across different temperature conditions. Additionally, we investigated the reproductive rate of the parental generation.
Results showed that the shell morphology of the parental generation differed across populations. In contrast, the shell morphology of offspring generations became more similar. The reaction norms of the F1 generation were rather variable across the three temperatures. However, we were able to observe a haplotype-dependent pattern across the reaction norms suggesting a restricted genetic differentiation among NZMS in Europe. We detected high heritability values in size indicating a high genetic influence. Heritability values for shape were lower than in size. Generally, heritability varied slightly depending on temperature. Size seemed to have a higher evolvability than shape. However, the values of all our calculations were very low which indicates that the European NZMS populations are genetically diminished. The reproductive rate of the parental generation was rather haplotype than temperature dependent. In summary, we were able to display that the NZMS is capable to plastically adapt its shell morphology to different temperatures showing significant differences between the two haplotypes. Nevertheless, the low evolvability values indicate that little genetic variation has formed since the arrival of the NZMS in Europe and therefore, European NZMS seem to have a reduced ability to react to selection.
These results implied that phenotypic plasticity is important for the adaptation to different environmental conditions in the NZMS and maybe other molluscan species. Since classical experimental approaches can only describe the resulting phenotypes, we also intended to shed more light on the mechanistic side of environmentally induced phenotypic modifications using DNA methylation analysis. Although molluscs represent one of the most diverse taxa within the metazoan and are found in many different habitats, our knowledge of the DNA methylation in molluscs is scarce. Therefore, we aimed at deepening and summarizing our understanding about DNA methylation in molluscs. Publicly available molluscan genomic and transcriptomic data of all eight mollusc classes was downloaded to search for DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs 1-3) responsible for DNA methylation. Additionally, we estimated the normalized CpG dinucleotide content (CpG o/e) indicating the presence/absence and the frequency of DNA methylation in the genome. The CpG o/e ratio refers to the level of DNA methylation in the genome. Based on the sensitivity of methylated cytosines to mutate into thymine residues, species having a high germline methylation in genomic regions over evolutionary time, also have a lower CpG content, which is called CpG depletion. In contrary, species with a limited germline methylation in genomic regions over evolutionary time, show a higher CpG content and lack CpG depletion. The presence or absence of CpG depletion can be calculated with the CpG o/e ratio. Ultimately, the goal of our analyses was to gain insight into the evolution of methylation in molluscs.
We detected DNMTs in all eight mollusc classes and in most of the species. It is therefore plausible that the last common ancestor of molluscs has already had the enzymatic machinery which is needed for DNA methylation. However, various species did not possess the complete DNMT toolkit indicating evolutionary modification in DNA methylation. In general, we found a wide distribution of the bimodal CpG o/e pattern in six mollusc classes, resulting from CpG depletion. The genes in these groups seem to be divided into genes with a high degree of methylation and genes with a lower degree of methylation. This implies that DNA methylation seems to be rather common in molluscs. Species of Solenogastres and Monoplacophora were not or only sparsely methylated. It seems that those mollusc groups have undergone a reduction in DNA methylation. We hope that our investigations will demonstrate the lacking knowledge in epigenetics of molluscs and encourage scientist to execute and continue genetic studies on molluscs.
For decades, evolutionary biologists have sought to understand the evolution of individual behaviour, physiology and ecology allowing organisms to cope to environmental change. One of the main challenges of current climate change is the unprecedent rate of temperature increase, as well as the increased occurence of extreme heat events. Interindividual response variability opens a whole new area of opportunities to understand how individual phenotypic traits are linked to individual response differences. In colour polymorphic species, colour honestly reflects an individual’s life-history strategy, and each morph may, therefore, represent an alternative life-history strategy. As such, colour polymorphic species, such as the Gouldian finch (Erythrura gouldiae), may be good models to assess how different strategies between morphs are linked to their espective responses to environmental variations. However, polymorphic species have mainly been disregarded for that purpose. In this context, the main aim of this thesis was to understand how the two morphs of the Gouldian finch respond through phenotypic plasticity to simulated heatwaves reaching thermocritical temperatures, and whether such differential responses may help to identify a ‘winner’ and a ‘loser’ morph in the light of climate change. To address these issues, we used an integrative approach including measurements of behavioural (Study 1), physiological (Study 2), and reproductive (Study 3) parameters. The novelty of our approach was to assess the immediate behavioural and physiological response variation of individuals of the two morphs longitudinally across different thermal conditions, as well as the postponed effects of this thermocritical heatwave exposure on their reproductive performance. In this study, although the behavioural responses generally did not differ between morphs or according to temperature intensity, the physiological and reproductive parameters differed in response to morph and temperature intensity. Blackheaded females, in particular, seem highly sensitive to thermocritical heatwaves, as they exhibited decreased body mass and increased oxidative damage during the thermocritical heatwaves, and advanced breeding initiation after these conditions, whereas these variables remained mostly unaffected in black-headed males and red-headed individuals. However, despite some response differences between morphs, both invested similarly in reproduction following intense heatwaves, and the offspring of both morphs were similarly affected. Based on these results, no morph therefore seems to appear more disadvantaged than the other following an intense heatwave, and red- and black-headed Gouldian finches may both be considered as climate stress ‘losers’.
The male genitalia of pholcid spiders, which is one of the most species-rich spider families, are characterized by a procursus, which is a morphologically diverse projection of the copulatory organ. It has been shown that the procursus interacts with the female genitalia during copulation. Here, we investigate the function of the procursus in Gertschiola neuquena, a species belonging to the early branched and understudied subfamily Ninetinae, using behavioural and morphological data. Although many aspects of the copulatory behaviour of G. neuquena follow the general pattern described for the family, males use only one pedipalp during each copulation. Based on our micro-CT analysis of cryofixed mating pairs using virgin females, we can show that the long and filiform procursus is inserted deeply into the unpaired convoluted female spermatheca, and the intromittent sclerite, the embolus, is rather short and stout only reaching the most distal part of the female sperm storage organ. Histological data revealed that sperm are present in the most proximal part of the spermatheca, suggesting that the procursus is used to allocate sperm deeply into the female sperm storage organ. This represents the first case of a replacement of the sperm allocation function of the intromittent sclerite in spiders.
Copulatory mechanics of ghost spiders reveals a new self-bracing mechanism in entelegyne spiders
(2023)
Spiders evolved a distinctive sperm transfer system, with the male copulatory organs located on the tarsus of the pedipalps. In entelegyne spiders, these organs are usually very complex and consist of various sclerites that not only allow the transfer of the sperm themselves but also provide a mechanical interlock between the male and female genitalia. This interlocking can also involve elements that are not part of the copulatory organ such as the retrolateral tibial apophysis (RTA)—a characteristic of the most diverse group of spiders (RTA clade). The RTA is frequently used for primary locking i.e., the first mechanical engagement between male and female genitalia. Despite its functional importance, some diverse spider lineages have lost the RTA, but evolved an apophysis on the femur instead. It can be hypothesized that this femoral apophysis is a functional surrogate of the RTA during primary locking or possibly serves another function, such as self-bracing, which involves mechanical interaction between male genital structures themselves to stabilize the inserted pedipalp. We tested these hypotheses using ghost spiders of the genus Josa (Anyphaenidae). Our micro-computed tomography data of cryofixed mating pairs show that the primary locking occurs through elements of the copulatory organ itself and that the femoral apophysis does not contact the female genitalia, but hooks to a projection of the copulatory bulb, representing a newly documented self-bracing mechanism for entelegyne spiders. Additionally, we show that the femoral self-bracing apophysis is rather uniform within the genus Josa. This is in contrast to the male genital structures that interact with the female, indicating that the male genital structures of Josa are subject to different selective regimes.
Mutualisms are ubiquitous in nature and shape whole ecosystems. Although species benefit by interacting with each other, they permanently act selfishly. As a consequence, the involved partners must balance gaining the maximal benefit while accepting a certain amount of costs. Changes in the environment, however, may alter selection pressures and lead to a shift in the relative costs and benefits for both involved species. Due to this complexity, many mutualisms and their underlying processes, such as the dependence of the involved species on each other, are only poorly understood. Moreover, in several so-called mutualistic interactions it is unclear if they are in fact beneficial for all partners because detailed cost-benefit analyses are missing. The aim of my thesis was to contribute to a better understanding of the basic principles of mammal-plant mutualisms with special emphasis on the interdependence of the involved species. Using the interaction between an insectivorous bat species (Kerivoula hardwickii) and carnivorous pitcher plants (genus Nepenthes) as a model system, I conducted a detailed cost-benefit analysis to test if the partners interact mutualistically and are strongly dependent on one another. I hypothesised that pitchers of these plants serve as high quality roosts for the bats while the bats in turn fertilise the plants via their nutritious faeces. For the involved species the costs of the interaction should be lower than the gained benefits, but general costs should increase in the absence of the partner. Over the course of my field research, I found the bats roosting in three Nepenthes species, but the bats occupied intact pitchers of only one species, Nepenthes hemsleyana. In Nepenthes bicalcarata and Nepenthes ampullaria, the bats used senescing or damaged pitchers whose high amount of digestive fluid had drained off. Thus, only N. hemsleyana was potentially able to digest bat faecal matter, and thereby benefit from the bats. My cost-benefit analysis showed that N. hemsleyana plants strongly benefited from their bat interaction partner: In feeding experiments the plants gained between 34% and 95% of their nitrogen from bat faeces, which significantly improved their growth, photosynthesis and survival. In contrast, plants without access to faeces could not fully compensate the induced lack of nutrients by using arthropod prey. Field observations revealed no obvious costs for the pitcher plant. N. hemsleyana pitchers occupied by bats did not differ in their lifespan from unoccupied ones as bats did not injure the plants’ tissue. The interaction was also advantageous for K. hardwickii because N. hemsleyana offered high quality roosts with a favourable microclimate and low parasite infestation risk. Consequently, bats roosting in N. hemsleyana pitchers were in better condition than those roosting in dead N. bicalcarata pitchers. Although N. hemsleyana pitchers are rare in the natural habitat, bats could easily find and identify them due to an echo reflector, which reduces time and energy costs for roost detection. Most N. hemsleyana plants continuously provided at least one intact pitcher meaning bats could return to the same plants over a period of several months or even years. The interaction between K. hardwickii and N. hemsleyana can be classified as an asymmetric facultative mutualism with stronger dependence of the plant partner. N. hemsleyana has outsourced arthropod capture and digestion to its mutualistic bat partner while arthropod attraction is strongly reduced. Contrastingly, several populations of K. hardwickii frequently use alternative roosts. Strong selective pressure on the plants could be the consequence to attract bats with a potential stabilising effect on the interaction: N. hemsleyana has to outcompete the involuntarily offered roosts of the other Nepenthes species in terms of quality and accessibility. My thesis revealed complex interdependencies in an animal-plant mutualism. This study exemplifies that rigorous cost-benefit analyses are crucial for the classification of interspecific interactions and the characterisation of how the involved species affect and depend on each other.
Costs of reproduction. A demographical approach to examine life-history trade-offs ─ Abstract. Resource-allocation trade-offs are fundamental constraints of life-history evolution. In particular the trade-offs between reproduction and longevity and between present and future reproduction are expected to form reproductive patterns. Unfortunately, exploring such trade-offs in natural populations is complicated and may not be possible. In face of several limitations, zoo data appear to be useful to better understand the reproductive biology of endangered, rare or cryptic species. In the first step, it was sought after with a data-mining, comparative multi-species approach for broad patterns of correlations between lifespan and variables in bird-eating spiders (Theraphosidae). The subfamily Eumenophoriinae on average lived longest, followed by the Theraphosinae, Ornithoctinae, Grammostolinae, Selenocosmiinae, Ischnocolinae and finally the Avicularinae. Species inhabiting tropical, more humid and/or low-altitude environments lived longer, suggesting that more predictable environments favour the evolution of longer lifespans. Furthermore, large range size, low abundance, sub-terrestrial life-style, and aggressive behaviour were all linked with longer lifespans. An argument for resource allocation trade-offs was found as larger spiderling and prosoma size were negatively related to longevity. In the second step, a demographical approach has been applied for two old-world deer species (Vietnamese sika deer Cervus nippon pseudaxis, Mesopotamian fallow deer Dama dama mesopotamica). In both species, births peaked right before the onset of the rainy season in natural environments. Females reached high reproductive output earlier in life and had (in one species only) higher survival rates than males. Offspring number covaried positively rather than negatively with longevity. In females, the length of the reproductive phase correlated positively with longevity, birth rate within the entire lifespan, and offspring number, while it was negatively correlated to the birth rate during the reproductive phase (in one species). The length of the post-reproductive phase was positively related to longevity and negatively to birth rate during the entire lifespan. In the third section, life-histories of Asiatic (Equus hemionus ssp.) and African wild asses (Equus africanus ssp.) have been anlaysed in a comparative way with another demographical long-term approach. All taxa showed even in captivity peak birth rates during the periods of highest food availability in their natural environments. Sex-specific survival rates with females living longer than males were evident in Kulan and Onager but not in Kiang and Somali wild ass, pointing towards different life-history strategies even among closely related taxa. Females achieved their highest reproductive output earlier than males, which is typical for polygynous mating systems. Offspring number and longevity were rather positively correlated than negatively. Taken together evidence for reproductive trade-offs was weak, though the length of the reproductive period was negatively related to birth rates within the reproductive period. Birth intervals increased with female age, probably reflecting detrimental effects of senescence.
Abstract
Spiders of the genus Micaria are ground‐living mimics of ants. Species delineation in these spiders is challenging, mainly because of exceptional high levels of intraspecific variation masking species boundaries. As implied by preliminary DNA barcode data from Central Europe, the Holarctic and very widely distributed glossy ant‐spider M. pulicaria shows cryptic diversity. Here, we disentangle the hidden diversity by means of an integrative taxonomy approach, using mitochondrial DNA, morphometrics, traditional genitalic characters and ecology. Our data suggest the clear delineation of two distinct species, which supports the conception of 19th century taxonomists. These early naturalists distinguished M. pulicaria and a second closely related species based on morphology and natural history, which were synonymized in subsequent taxonomic studies. Therefore, we re‐circumscribe M. pulicaria and revalidate the long forgotten M. micans. These two Micaria species co‐occur sympatrically in vast areas of the western Palearctic, while the Nearctic region is populated by M. pulicaria alone. Male genitalic traits are more dissimilar in the area of sympatry than in allopatry, suggesting a decisive role of reproductive character displacement in species diversification. Our study emphasizes the value of the early taxonomic literature in integrative taxonomic studies, as it may contain crucial information on natural history that are not regularly recorded by modern taxonomists.
Niedermoore beherbergen eine einzigartige Flora und Fauna. Aber Niedermoore sie sind auch stark bedroht. So ist von der ursprünglichen Moorfläche Deutschlands nur noch ein Prozent erhalten. Es stellt sich also die Frage, wie sich diese Restflächen möglichst effektiv managen lassen, um diese einzigartige Biodiversität zu schützen. Zudem werden die verbliebenen Niedermoorflächen wahrscheinlich nicht ausreichen, um besonders stark gefährdete Arten auch langfristig zu erhalten. Es wird also nötig sein, degradierte Niedermoorstandorte zu renaturieren, um ausreichend Lebensraum für besonders stark gefährdete Niedermoorarten zu reetablieren. Aus diesem Grunde wurde in dieser Arbeit sowohl der Einfluss unterschiedlicher Nutzungsformen wie auch von Renaturierungsmaßnahmen auf die Biodiversität der Niedermoore untersucht. Die Untersuchungen wurden zwischen 2011 und 2012 im Unteren Peenetal in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern durchgeführt. Als Indikatorgruppen wurden die Vögel (Aves), Tagfalter (Lepidoptera), Heuschrecken (Ensifera und Caelifera) und Laufkäfer (Coleoptera: Carabidae) ausgewählt, um den Einfluss von fünf unterschiedlichen Nutzungstypen (Intensivgrünland, Feuchtgrünland, Sommermahd, Wintermahd, Brache) auf die Fauna der Niedermoore zu ermitteln. Die Effektivität von Renaturierungsmaßnahmen wurde anhand der Laufkäfer und Gefäßpflanzen untersucht, auf entwässerten (Intensivgrünland), wiedervernässten (einst stark entwässertes Intensivgrünland) und naturnahen (relativ naturbelassen) Niedermoorstandorten. Zusätzlich wurden bei allen Untersuchungen verschiedene Umweltparameter erfasst, wie z.B. Wasserstand, Vegetationsstruktur und Torfdegradation. Noch vor der eigentlichen Datenaufnahme, wurde ein naturschutzfachliches Bewertungssystem entwickelt, welches auf der Häufigkeit, der Gefährdung und der Verantwortlichkeit Deutschlands für den Schutz einer Art basiert. Durch dieses Bewertungssystem lassen sich jedem Standort, je nach Artengruppe, spezifische Naturschutzwerte zuweisen. Die untersuchten Nutzungstypen unterschieden sich signifikant in Wasserstand und Vegetationsstruktur, was entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Ausprägung der Artgemeinschaftsstrukturen hatte. Die untersuchten Taxa reagierten sehr unterschiedlich auf die verschiedenen Nutzungstypen. Die Sommermahdflächen, welche durch relativ hohe Wasserstände gekennzeichnet waren, hatten einen besonders hohen naturschutzfachlichen Wert für die Vögel, während sich das Intensivgrünland aufgrund der Frühjahrsmahd und niedriger Wasserstände als ungeeignet für die niedermoortypische Avifauna erwies. Hingegen wurden für die Tagfalter und Heuschrecken die höchsten Artzahlen und Naturschutzwerte im Feuchtgrünland nachgewiesen, welches durch mittlere Mahdfrequenzen und Wasserstände charakterisiert war. Die Wintermahdflächen zeigten zum einen die niedrigsten Artzahlen und Naturschutzwerte für die Tagfalter und Heuschrecken, zum anderen aber auch den höchsten Naturschutzwert für die Laufkäfer. Auf den Brachflächen konnten besonders viele Individuen der vom Aussterben bedrohten Laufkäferarten Carabus menetriesi und Limodromus krynickii nachgewiesen werden. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen deutlich, dass nur ein Mosaik unterschiedlicher Nutzungstypen mit ausreichend hohen Wasserständen, die gesamte Niedermoorfauna erhalten kann. Auch entwässerte, wiedervernässte und naturnahe Niedermoore zeigten deutliche Unterschiede bezüglich der Umweltparameter. In der Folge waren diese drei Niedermoortypen auch durch eigenständige Gefäßpflanzen- und Laufkäfergemeinschaften gekennzeichnet. Besonders der Wasserstand und der Zustand des Torfkörpers hatten einen Einfluss auf die Formierung der niedermoortypspezifischen Artgemeinschaftsstrukturen. Artzahl und Naturschutzwert der Gefäßpflanzen waren auf naturnahen Niedermooren am höchsten, während auf entwässerten sowie wiedervernässten Niedermooren nur sehr geringe Artzahlen und Naturschutzwerte für die Gefäßpflanzen ermittelt werden konnten. Hingegen waren für die Laufkäfer, die Artzahl und die Anzahl stenotoper Niedermoorarten auf den wiedervernässten Flächen am höchsten. Auch der Naturschutzwert der Laufkäfer war auf den wiedervernässten Niedermooren deutlich höher als auf entwässerten Standorten, erreichte aber nicht den besonders hohen Naturschutzwert naturnaher Niedermoore. Folglich können Wiedervernässungen zwar zu einer deutlichen naturschutzfachlichen Aufwertung entwässerter Niedermoore führen. Jedoch sind Wiedervernässungsmaßnahmen alleine nicht geeignet, um Artgemeinschaften naturnaher Niedermoore zu reetablieren. Entsprechend hoch ist die Bedeutung des Schutzes noch bestehender naturnaher Niedermoore. Zudem zeigen die sehr unterschiedlichen Reaktionen der einzelnen Taxa auf die jeweiligen Management- und Renaturierungsmaßnahmen, wie wichtig die Berücksichtigung mehrerer Artengruppen bei naturschutzfachlichen Bewertungen von Management- und Renaturierungsmaßnahmen ist.
Das alpha-Toxin (Hla) von Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) spielt eine bedeutende Rolle bei S. aureus-induzierten Pneumonien. Hla bindet zunächst als Monomer an die Plasmamembran eukaryotischer Wirtszellen und assoziiert sich zu heptameren Transmembranporen. Die Sensitivität gegenüber dem Toxin ist bei verschiedenen Atemwegsepithelzelllinien unterschiedlich ausgeprägt. Die Gründe dafür sind bis jetzt nicht vollends verstanden. Mögliche Faktoren, die einen Einfluss auf die Hla-Sensitivität der Zellen haben, könnten die Rezeptordichte und Effizienz der Porenbildung sowie die Entsorgung von Poren aus der PM durch Internalisierung und Degradation (lysosomal, proteasomal) oder durch Ausschleusung von extrazellulären Vesikeln in den Extrazellularraum sein.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Bedeutung der Faktoren, die einen Einfluss auf die Toxin-Sensitivität von Wirtszellen haben könnten, am Beispiel der drei Atemwegs-Modellzelllinien 16HBE14o-, S9 sowie A549 genauer zu untersuchen.
Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Menge an rHla, allem voran die Abundanz der Heptamere in der Plasmamembran der Zellen, einen starken Einfluss auf die Toxinsensitivität (gemessen an der Rate parazellulärer Lückenbildung in den Zellverbänden) der Zelllinien hat. Diese Ergebnisse korrelierten am besten mit der Häufigkeit des potenziellen Hla-Rezeptors ADAM10 in der Plasmamembran der drei Zelltypen, aber auch das Phospholipid Sphingomyelin scheint ebenfalls einen Einfluss auf die Hla-Sensitivität der Zellen zu haben. Die Zellgröße, der für die Hla-Vorpore stabilisierende Faktor Caveolin-1, Integrin α5β1 als weiterer möglicher Hla-Rezeptor und die Lipide Phosphatidylcholin/-serin zeigten dagegen keine Korrelation zur Hla-Sensitivität der drei Atemwegsepithelzelllinien. Das Lipid Phosphatidylethanolamin wies zwar das gleiche Muster wie das des Sphingomyelins bei den Zelllinien auf, jedoch muss eine mögliche Bedeutung des Lipids in der Hla-Bindung und/oder -Heptamerisierung erst noch untersucht werden.
Untersuchungen der Internalisierung des Toxins zeigten, dass von den drei Atemwegsepithelzelllinien nur die S9-Zellen in der Lage waren die rHla-Heptamere effizient zu internalisieren. Dabei konnte unter Verwendung der rHla-Mutante rH35L, die keine Transmembranpore ausbilden kann, gezeigt werden, dass die Internalisierung der Toxin-Heptamere wahrscheinlich Poren-unabhängig geschieht. Durch die Überprüfung des rHla-Abbaus in S9-Zellen nach Inhibierung der lysosomalen oder proteasomalen Proteindegradation konnte ein Abbau des Toxins über das Proteasom ausgeschlossen werden. Dagegen scheint der lysosomale Weg von entscheidender Bedeutung für die Hla-Heptamer-Degradation zu sein. Eine saure Hydrolyse der Protease-resistenten Toxin-Heptamere in rHla-Monomere konnte allerdings nicht nachgewiesen werden und scheint somit bei dem lysosomalen Abbau keine Rolle zu spielen. Präparierte extrazelluläre Vesikel von rHla-behandelten S9-Zellen zeigten zudem, dass eine Entsorgung des Toxins über Exosomen und/oder Mikrovesikel ebenfalls bei diesen Zellen möglich zu sein scheint. Der primäre Weg der Hla-Prozessierung ist bei den S9-Zellen dennoch der lysosomale Abbau.
Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit sollen dazu dienen, das Tragen eines Maulkorbs bei Diensthunden als möglichen Stressor zu analysieren und das Verhalten von Passanten auf Maulkorb tragende Hunde weiter zu erforschen.
123 Diensthunde wurden dafür in drei verschiedenen Situationen (Ablage (N=103), Stadtspaziergang (N=51) und Schutzdienst (N=35)) untersucht. Hierzu wurden das Ausdrucksverhalten und die Cortisolwerte videografiert und gemessen. Die Situatio-nen wurden jeweils einmal ohne und einmal mit Maulkorb durchgeführt, um gegebenenfalls eine Veränderung im Verhalten oder in den Cortisolwerten der Hunde durch den Maulkorb zu erkennen. Die Cortisolproben wurden vor der Situation im oder am Auto von den Diensthunden von den jeweiligen Hundeführern entnommen. 10-15 Minuten nach der Situation wurde die zweite Speichelprobe entnommen. Die Speichel-Cortisolwerte vorher und nachher dienten dem Vergleich und der Beurteilung, ob der Maulkorb einen Einfluss auf die Cortisolwerte hatte. Ausgewertet wurden die Proben mit Hilfe eines Enzymimmunoassays in Wien.
Während des Stadtspaziergangs wurde das Verhalten der Passanten auf die Hunde videografiert und ausgewertet. Auch hierbei wurde der Vergleich im Verhalten der Menschen auf die Diensthunde „ohne Maulkorb“ (N=1010) und „mit Maulkorb“ (N=1011) angestellt.
Die Fragestellungen dieser Arbeit waren:
• Zeigt der Diensthund in drei unterschiedlichen Übungssituationen durch das Tragen des Maulkorbes andere Verhaltensweisen als ohne Maulkorb?
• Steigt der Pegel des Stresshormons Cortisol beim Diensthund durch das Tragen des Maulkorbes in drei unterschiedlichen Übungssituationen im Vergleich zu den gleichen Situationen ohne Maulkorb an?
• Sind die Reaktionen von Passanten auf einen maulkorbtragenden Hund anders, als auf einen Hund ohne Maulkorb?
In dieser Studie konnte in keiner der drei Situationen ein Anstieg der Cortisolwerte bei den Hunden durch das Tragen des Maulkorbes festgestellt werden. Bei den Ver-haltensbeobachtungen konnten hingegen Unterschiede erkannt werden. Die Ohr- und Rutenhaltung wurden während des Stadtspaziergangs mit Maulkorb häufiger in einer defensiveren und submissiveren Stimmungslage getragen. Zusätzlich wurde ohne Maulkorb mehr gewedelt und geschnüffelt.
Der Einsatz des Maulkorbes bei der Polizei erzeugt nach dieser Studie bei Dienst-hunden keinen zusätzlichen Stress und stellt vielfach ein unersetzliches Hilfsmittel dar. Auch bei der Verwendung im Privathundebereich ist der Maulkorb deshalb mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit ein gutes Hilfsmittel, das der Hund, bei guter Gewöhnung und für einen begrenzten Zeitraum, ohne gesundheitliche Bedenken tragen kann.
Das Verhalten der Passanten auf die Hunde unterschied sich nur in dem Verhalten „keine Reaktion“. Auf Hunde ohne Maulkorb wurde häufiger nicht reagiert. Ein Anzeichen für erhöhte Furcht oder Wachsamkeit bei einem potentiell gefährlichen Hund mit Maulkorb, wie es in der Studie von Racca & Baudoin (2009) festgestellt wurde, konnte nicht beobachtet werden.
Der Vergleich von den in dieser Arbeit gewonnenen Erkenntnissen mit anderen Studien, ist fast nur in dem Bereich der Stressforschung beim Hund möglich. Arbeiten über die Auswirkungen des Maulkorbes auf das Verhalten von Hunden oder Passanten sind bisher kaum durchgeführt worden. Diese Arbeit bietet in diesem Bereich einen bisher einzigartigen Ansatz und konnte darüber hinaus mit einer großen Anzahl von Hunden durchgeführt werden.
Die vorgelegte Studie wurde auch im Hinblick auf Tierschutzaspekte durchgeführt und diskutiert. Es ist zu berücksichtigen, dass für die hier getesteten Situationen nur ein kurzes Tragen des Maulkorbes vom Hund notwendig war. Die Vielfältigkeit der unterschiedlichen Ausbildungsmethoden in den Polizeidienststellen und auch die vielfältigen Persönlichkeiten von Hunden und Hundeführern machen die Arbeit so anwendungsrelevant. Gerade auch die unterschiedliche Gewöhnung und Gewöhnungszeit an den Maulkorb, spiegelt die Realität im Umgang mit diesem Hilfsmittel wider und bietet, durch die große Zahl an teilgenommenen Hunden, trotzdem aussagekräftige Ergebnisse.
In einer parallel durchgeführten Studie von I. Spitzley werden das Verhalten und die Cortisolwerte von Haushunden während eines 45 minütigen Freilaufs, jeweils Hunde mit und ohne Maulkorb, ausgewertet und analysiert.
Der Speichel des medizinischen Blutegels, H. verbana enthält eine Vielzahl von Proteinen und Peptiden mit deren Hilfe das Tier bei seinen Wirten parasitiert. Die bioaktiven Speichelinhaltsstoffe sind in den einzelligen Speicheldrüsenzellen des Tieres lokalisiert und werden während des Saugaktes über die Ausführgänge einer jeden Zelle in die Bisswunde des Wirtes transferiert. Die Proteine ermöglichen es dem Parasiten das Blut des Wirtes optimal aufzunehmen und es bis zu einem Jahr im Speichermagen zu bevorraten. In den letzten Jahrzehnten wurden einige Speichelproteine identifiziert und rekombinant hergestellt. Aufgrund schmerzstillender, gefäßerweiternder, gerinnungshemmender und vermutlich auch thromobolytischer Eigenschaften sind diese Substanzen in der Humanmedizin und -prophylaxe von potenzieller Bedeutung. Seit Jahrhunderten wird die klassische Blutegeltherapie durch das Ansetzen lebender Egel an die Haut des Menschen von Heilpraktikern und Ärzten erfolgreich durchgeführt. Gleichwohl sind die Funktionen der meisten sekretorischen Speichelproteine weiter ungeklärt und die Mechanismen, die zur Freisetzung der Proteine aus den Vorratsbehältern führen, unbekannt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte im Zuge der Quantifizierung der Speichelproteine und -peptide von H. medicinalis und H. verbana festgestellt werden, dass es keine globalen Unterschiede im Expressionsmuster beider Arten gibt. Es ist anzunehmen, dass der ohnehin in den letzten Jahren vermutlich zumeist, wenngleich vom Therapeuten unbewusst, eingesetzte H. verbana ähnliche Speichelproteine wie der tatsächlich medizinisch zugelassene H. medicinalis besitzt. Darüber hinaus wurde in dieser Arbeit mit gelfreien und gelbasierten Methoden erstmals das sekretorische Speichelproteom eines einzelnen Blutegels dargestellt. Dieses wird es zukünftig erlauben, Speichelproteine zu identifizieren und auf deren Funktion zu testen. Mit Hilfe der 3D-Rekonstruktion von Speicheldrüsenzellen konnte ermittelt werden, dass ein adulter Blutegel der Art H. verbana etwa 36.960 Speicheldrüsenzellen mit einem mittleren Volumen von 67.048 ± 38.935 µm³ besitzt. Aus den Daten und dem ermittelten Proteingehalt einer Speicheldrüsenzelle wurde geschlussfolgert, dass ein Blutegel über 1,2 ± 0,7 mg Protein in seinen Speicheldrüsenzellen verfügt. Sollte die gesamte Proteinmenge in den Wirt transferiert werden, könnten individuelle Komponenten des Egelspeichels in einem extrazellulären Verteilungsvolumen von 5 l (Mensch) maximale Konzentrationen zwischen 3 und 236 pmol/l erreichen. Gleichwohl ergaben histologische Studien, die eine Reduktion der Speicheldrüsenzellflächen nach der Nahrungsaufnahme anzeigen und auf eine Entleerung der Speicheldrüsen im Zuge des Saugaktes schließen lassen, dass die Zellflächen in gesogenen Tieren gegenüber den Zellflächen in ungesogen Egel nur um etwa 40 % reduziert sind. Die sich ergebene Frage, ob die Entleerung der Drüsenzellen dementsprechend auch nur anteilig erfolgt, kann derzeit aufgrund nur lückenhafter Erkenntnisse zur inneren Struktur der Speichelsekretionszelle noch nicht beantwortet werden. Mit Verweis auf das einzige pharmakokinetisch umfangreich untersuchte Speichelprotein Hirudin (Ki 2,3 pmol/l) kann jedoch gemutmaßt werden, dass selbst unter der Annahme einer nur 40 %igen Speicheldrüsen-Entleerung die in den Wirt transferierte Menge an individuellen Speichelproteinen eines einzelnen Tieres ausreichend hoch sein könnte, um pharmakologisch wirksame Konzentrationen im Organismus zu erreichen. Interessanterweise gelang es in dieser Arbeit erstmals zu zeigen, dass die Neusynthese der Speichelproteine, obgleich die Tiere von dem Nahrungsblut einer Mahlzeit bis zu einem Jahr leben, bereits innerhalb der ersten beiden Wochen nach der Nahrungsaufnahme stattfindet. Die Mechanismen, die zur Freisetzungen des Materials aus den einzelligen Drüsen führen, sind bislang weitestgehend ungeklärt. Innerhalb dieser Arbeit konnten erste Beiträge geleistet werden, indem elektronenmikroskopisch nachgewiesen wurde, dass die Speicheldrüsenzellen Vesikel enthalten, in denen wahrscheinlich die sekretorischen Speichelinhaltsstoffe vorliegen. Zudem wurde gezeigt, dass Na+/K+-ATPase-Moleküle in nur sehr geringer Abundanz in den Drüsenzellen vorkommen, V-ATPase-Moleküle, die sekundäre Ionentransporte energetisieren (Erhöhung der intrazellulären Osmolyt-Konzentration) und zur Freisetzung des sekretorischen Materials (Platzen der Vesikel) führen könnten, jedoch sehr prominent sind.
In einem Zeitraum von neun Jahren (1993 bis 2001) wurden am Greifswalder Bodden drei Küstenüberflutungsmoore (Freesendorfer Wiesen, Kooser Wiesen und Karrendorfer Wiesen) und benachbarte überflutungsunbeeinflusste Grünländer in verschiedenem Umfang auf ihre epigäische Staphylinidenfauna hin untersucht. Dabei konnten insgesamt 14.430 Kurzflügler aus 220 Arten nachgewiesen werden. Es wurden die Besonderheiten und allgemeinen Charakteristika der untersuchten Kurzflüglerzönosen beschrieben. Neben der Betrachtung der Staphylinidenpopulationen als Ganzes wurden die aufgetretenen Arten und ihre vorgefundene Verteilung in den drei untersuchten Biotoptypen analysiert. Anhand der sich dabei herauskristallisierenden Verteilung sowie den aus der Literatur ermittelten regionalen Schwerpunkten im Auftreten wurden für die in der vorliegenden Arbeit relevantesten 90 epigäischen Kurzflüglerarten regionale Habitatpräferenzen herausgearbeitet. Die so abgeleiteten Habitatpräferenzgruppen wurden dann genutzt, um die Zusammensetzung der Staphylinidenfaunen unterschiedlicher Standorttypen zu charakterisieren. Zudem wurden die charakteristischen Staphylinidenarten für die untersuchten Biotoptypen im vorpommerschen Boddenküstenbereich bestimmt. Mit Hilfe der allgemeinen Charakteristika sowie der Zusammensetzung der Zönose anhand der Habitatpräferenzgruppen wurde zudem die Sukzession der Karrendorfer Wiesen bis 8 Jahre nach der Ausdeichung analysiert. Zuletzt wird eine generelle Eignung der epigäischen Staphyliniden für das Biomonitoring diskutiert.
Abstract
The neritid snail Theodoxus fluviatilis has formed regional subgroups in northern Europe, where it appears in both freshwater (FW) and brackish water (BW) in coastal areas of the Baltic Sea. These ecotypes show clear differences in osmotolerance and in the modes of accumulating organic osmolytes under hyperosmotic stress. We reasoned that the expression patterns of soluble proteins in the two ecotypes may differ as well. BW snails have to deal with a higher salinity (up to 20‰) than FW snails (0.5‰) and also cope with frequent fluctuations in environmental salinity that occur after heavy rains or evaporation caused by extended periods of intense sunshine. Therefore, the protein expression patterns of specimens collected at five different FW and BW sites were analyzed using 2D SDS‐PAGE, mass spectrometry, and sequence comparisons based on a transcriptome database for Theodoxus fluviatilis. We identified 89 differentially expressed proteins. The differences in the expression between FW and BW snails may be due to phenotypic plasticity, but may also be determined by local genetic adaptations. Among the differentially expressed proteins, 19 proteins seem to be of special interest as they may be involved in mediating the higher tolerance of BW animals towards environmental change compared with FW animals.
Human habitat disturbance affects both species diversity and intraspecific genetic diversity, leading to correlations between these two components of biodiversity (termed species–genetic diversity correlation, SGDC). However, whether SGDC predictions extend to host‐associated communities, such as the intestinal parasite and gut microbial diversity, remains largely unexplored. Additionally, the role of dominant generalist species is often neglected despite their importance in shaping the environment experienced by other members of the ecological community, and their role as source, reservoir and vector of zoonotic diseases. New analytical approaches (e.g. structural equation modelling, SEM) can be used to assess SGDC relationships and distinguish among direct and indirect effects of habitat characteristics and disturbance on the various components of biodiversity.
With six concrete and biologically sound models in mind, we collected habitat characteristics of 22 study sites from four distinct landscapes located in central Panama. Each landscape differed in the degree of human disturbance and fragmentation measured by several quantitative variables, such as canopy cover, canopy height and understorey density. In terms of biodiversity, we estimated on the one hand, (a) small mammal species diversity, and, on the other hand, (b) genome‐wide diversity, (c) intestinal parasite diversity and (d) gut microbial heterogeneity of the most dominant generalist species (Tome's spiny rat, Proechimys semispinosus). We used SEMs to assess the links between habitat characteristics and biological diversity measures.
The best supported SEM suggested that habitat characteristics directly and positively affect the richness of small mammals, the genetic diversity of P. semispinosus and its gut microbial heterogeneity. Habitat characteristics did not, however, directly impact intestinal parasite diversity. We also detected indirect, positive effects of habitat characteristics on both host‐associated assemblages via small mammal richness. For microbes, this is likely linked to cross species transmission, particularly in shared and/or anthropogenically altered habitats, whereas host diversity mitigates parasite infections. The SEM revealed an additional indirect but negative effect on intestinal parasite diversity via host genetic diversity.
Our study showcases that habitat alterations not only affect species diversity and host genetic diversity in parallel, but also species diversity of host‐associated assemblages. The impacts from human disturbance are therefore expected to ripple through entire ecosystems with far reaching effects felt even by generalist species.
Culicidae, auch bekannt als Stechmücken, sind medizinisch bedeutsame Zweiflügler, die als Vektoren eine Vielzahl von Krankheitserregern auf Menschen und Tiere übertragen können. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich einerseits mit der Verbreitung von zwei seltenen Stechmückenarten, welche im Rahmen eines Monitoringprojekts gefangen wurden, und andererseits mit der Ökologie der Asiatischen Tigermücke. Bei allen Arten handelt es sich um thermophile Arten, bei denen angenommen wird, dass der Klimawandel ihre Verbreitung Richtung Norden begünstigt. Dies konnte vor allem für die Art Uranotaenia unguiculata gezeigt werden, da sie an zwei Orten gefunden wurde, die ausgesprochen weit entfernt waren von der einzigen jemals zuvor beschriebenen Nachweisstelle in Deutschland. Obwohl an beiden Fundorten jeweils nur ein einziges adultes Individuum gefangen werden konnte, ergab eine Beprobung von potenziellen Bruthabitaten im darauffolgenden Jahr, dass lokale Reproduktion stattfand. Somit konnte eine ausschließliche Verschleppung von adulten Einzelindividuen weitgehend ausgeschlossen werden. Eine weitere seltene Stechmückenart, die im Zuge des Monitorings nachgewiesen werden konnte, ist Anopheles algeriensis. Diese Art wurde an drei Standorten gefangen, an zwei von ihnen mit einer viel höheren Abundanz als Ur. unguiculata.
Den ökologischen Teil dieser Arbeit machen Feld- und Laborexperimente mit Aedes albopictus aus. Sie dienten der Ermittlung der Kältetoleranz der Eier dieser Spezies, die als Vektor für eine Vielzahl von Viren und andere Pathogene gilt. Drei verschiedene Stämme, die aus tropischen, subtropischen und gemäßigten Breiten stammen, wurden niedrigen Temperaturen, welche typischerweise im Winter herrschen, unter Feld- und Laborbedingungen ausgesetzt. Die Experimente belegen, dass alle untersuchten Stämme prinzipiell einen Winter mit einem Temperaturminimum von –8 °C im Feld überleben konnten. Die Laborexperimente konnten hingegen zeigen, dass alle Stämme in der Lage waren, Temperaturen von –10 °C für eine gewisse Zeit zu ertragen. Die Überlebensfähigkeit schwankte je nach Stamm zwischen 2 und 20 Tagen. Dabei hatte der Stamm aus den gemäßigten Breiten eine Kältetoleranz, die nur wenig höher lag als die des subtropischen Stammes. Der tropische Stamm hingegen besaß die geringste Toleranz gegenüber niedrigen Temperaturen, sowohl in den Freiland- als auch in den Laborexperimenten. Diapausierende Eier zeigen nur eine höhere Kältetoleranz nahe den physiologischen Grenzen der jeweiligen Stämme. Weiterhin konnte festgestellt werden, dass Eier unter fluktuierenden Temperaturen eine bestimmte Minimaltemperatur länger aushalten konnten als unter konstanten Temperaturen. Somit zeigen beide Experimente, dass gewisse Stämme von Ae. albopictus eine sehr hohe Toleranz gegenüber niedrigen Temperaturen haben. Das macht es sehr wahrscheinlich, dass diese invasive Art Winter in Deutschland oder anderen mitteleuropäischen Ländern überleben und ihre Ausbreitung weiter fortschreiten werden. Diese Entwicklung wird epidemiologische Auswirkungen auf die Human- und Veterinärmedizin haben.
In Germany, basic data on the biology, ecology and distribution of rare mosquito species are insufficiently recorded leading to knowledge gaps, for example regarding their vector potential. The introduction of new mosquito species and of the pathogens they transmit has increased the risk of diseases previously uncommon in Germany. These circumstances have led to increased efforts within the past 10 years to better understand the spatio-temporal occurrence and underlying habitat binding of mosquito species and to predict their future distribution, particularly with regard to the changing climatic conditions and changing landscape. A reliable morphological and genetic identification was lacking for several native mosquito species, which forms the basis for any robust monitoring within mosquito surveillance programs or insect conservation projects.
The aim of this thesis was to gain detailed knowledge on the current spatial and temporal occurrence, the habitat binding, and morphological and genetic features with regard to species identification for the non-native species Aedes albopictus (Skuse, 1895), the native species of the Aedes Annulipes Group, and the native and rare species Aedes refiki Medschid, 1928, Culex martinii Medschid, 1930 and Culiseta ochroptera (Peus, 1935).
The thesis compares the suitability of the local climate for the persistence of the species Aedes albopictus sporadically observed in Jena (Thuringia) from 2015 to 2018 with two populations in southern Germany. The focus was on the analysis of extreme winter temperatures and the duration below selected temperature thresholds. In addition to critical temperature conditions, aquatic habitat conditions were of importance. The results of this study suggest that the population could become established in the long term.
Through the monitoring conducted for this thesis, the very rare mosquito species Aedes refiki, Culex martinii in Thuringia and Culiseta ochroptera were rediscovered at several sites in northern and eastern Germany. It was possible to add new information on habitat binding, distribution and abundance for the considered mosquito species. The survival of these rare native mosquito species depends on the preservation of a few remaining habitats. In addition, it can be assumed that these species will become even rarer with future climate change in Germany and, therefore, should be considered endangered. In contrast, other mosquito species could benefit from an increase in average temperatures or precipitation in individual cases.
Due to the contribution to species identification, difficulties in the morphological and genetic identification of selected mosquito species native to Germany could be dispelled. Three forms each were assigned to the known morphological variants of Aedes refiki and Culiseta ochroptera and their peculiarities were described, as well as a new character for species identification was highlighted in the case of Culiseta ochroptera. Generated CO1 mtDNA sequences provide the first DNA-barcodes of Aedes refiki and Culex martinii for Germany.
In five native mosquito species of the Aedes Annulipes Group, twenty types of aberrant tarsal claws were illustrated and described in their morphology. Morphological peculiarities and an asymmetrical occurrence of the aberrant claw types were observed and possible causes for their development were discussed. Together with the development of a basic blueprint of mosquito tarsal claws, the results opened another field of research for the taxonomy, developmental biology and aquatic ecology of arthropods.
The present work focusses on the mosquito populations of two zoological gardens in Germany with the aim to better understand mosquito biology of native species and to contribute to a greater awareness of mosquito and mosquito-borne disease agent surveillance in zoos. For this purpose, data on species composition, blood meal patterns and mosquito-borne pathogens were analysed. The investigated zoological gardens differed not only in their sizes and animal stocks, but also in their surrounding environments. The 160 ha Tierpark Berlin is located in a densely populated urban area, while the 15 ha Zoological Garden Eberswalde is surrounded by forest.
To gain an overview about the mosquito fauna of both zoos, adult specimens were caught by aspirating and EVS-trapping during the 2016 season. In addition, larval stages were collected from their breeding sites located in the zoo areas. In total, 2,257 mosquitoes were sampled, belonging to 20 taxa. Seasonal differences between the zoos were documented, both in terms of species composition and the relative abundance of mosquito species collected. As the studied zoos were located in the same climatic region and both locations provided similar breeding sites, differences in species composition were attributed to the entry of mosquitoes from surrounding landscapes. Influencing factors could have been the different sizes of the zoos and variations in the potential host animal populations.
According to the vector potential of most frequently collected taxa in the Zoological Garden Eberswalde (Annulipes Group, Culiseta annulata), TAHV, USUV, WNV, filariae and avian malaria parasites appear to have the highest risk of being transmitted at this location. In the Tierpark Berlin, Aedes vexans was the most frequently collected mosquito species, suggesting a theoretical risk for the transmission of a broader spectrum of pathogens due to covered vector competences. Pathogens such as BATV, SINV, TAHV, USUV and filarial worms could be of major importance regarding transmission risk to zoo animals, as they had previously been found to circulate Germany. In addition, avian malaria parasites represent a considerable risk for susceptible exotic bird species in Berlin.
Since the blood-feeding behaviour of vector-competent mosquito species has a major influence on the transmission of a mosquito-associated pathogen, the analysis of blood meal patterns is crucial to better understand vector-pathogen cycles. Therefore, blood meals of blood-fed mosquitoes caught in 2016 and 2017 by aspirating and EVS-trapping in the Tierpark Berlin and the Zoological Garden Eberswalde were analysed. The aim was to investigate to what extent native mosquito species accept exotic zoo animals, wild native animals and humans as blood hosts. In addition, it was examined whether the collected species are generalists or specialists when selecting vertebrates for blood feeding.
A total of 405 blood-fed mosquitoes from 16 taxa were collected. The genetic analysis of blood meals identified 56 host species, which – in addition to humans – mainly originated from mammals of the zoo animal populations. In agreement with the previous study on the mosquito fauna of the Tierpark Berlin and the Zoological Garden Eberswalde, the analysis of blood meals also showed differences between the two zoos. In the smaller Zoological Garden Eberswalde, a higher number of blood-fed mosquitoes was collected than in the Tierpark Berlin, probably caused by a higher host density in Eberswalde, which may have led to an overall higher mosquito density. However, no differences between both zoos were observed with respect to the blood feeding behaviour of the analysed mosquito species: Mosquitoes of both locations were rather generalistic, although species could be grouped according their blood meals into 'amphibian', 'non-human mammal' and, ‘non-human mammal and human' feeding species. The more random selection of hosts could indicate a low probability of effective pathogen transmission by applying the 'dilution effect'. Notwithstanding, since wild animals have also been accepted as hosts, pathogen transmission by bridge vectors from one vertebrate group to another could be relevant in the sampled zoos.
Adult mosquito specimens collected in 2016 and 2017 were screened for filarial nematodes, avian Haemosporidia and mosquito-borne viruses. Dirofilaria repens was detected in a mosquito from the Zoological Garden Eberswalde. Mosquitoes from Berlin and Eberswalde were tested positive for the nematode species S. tundra. Sindbis virus was found in a mosquito pool collected in the Tierpark Berlin, while no mosquito-associated viruses were detected in specimens collected in the Zoological Garden Eberswalde. Mosquitoes from both zoos were positive for the haemosporidian parasites Haemoproteus sp. and Leucocytozoon sp., and one documentation was made for avian Plasmodium sp. in the Tierpark Berlin.
The identified pathogens have the potential to cause disease in captive and wild animals, and some of them also in humans. Most of the mosquitoes tested positive had been collected in July, suggesting a high infection risk during this month. Since most pathogen detections were made from species belonging to the Cx. pipiens complex, species of this complex seem to be most relevant in the studied zoos when it comes to mosquito-borne pathogen transmission. Although mosquitoes are no proven vectors of most of the avian malaria parasite genera found, evidence for Haemoproteus sp. and Leucozytozoon sp. demonstrated a high prevalence of avian malaria parasites in the zoos.
In summary, the results of the three studies indicate regional differences both in the mosquito species composition and in the occurrence of mosquito-borne pathogens. However, no differences were found between the mosquito communities of both zoos concerning their blood feeding behaviour, suggesting that the general behaviour of the insects is location-independent.
Several potential disease agents were found in the collected mosquitoes, although not at high abundances. Whether these pathogens were found by chance in the two zoos or whether the particular zoo environment is a hot spot of arthropod-borne pathogens cannot be determined with the studies conducted. Nonetheless, it seems clear that zoological gardens are attractive to mosquito females not only in their search for breeding sites, but also when looking for blood hosts and places for mating or resting. These advantageous conditions also attract mosquito species that have their larval habitats outside the zoological gardens, which is why elimination of breeding sites on the zoo premises alone will not necessarily keep away all mosquitoes.
A closer collaboration between zoological gardens and entomologists could be beneficial for both. Zoo officials could benefit from being able to identify potential arthropod vectors on the zoo grounds and receiving information on circulating arthropod-borne disease agents, as well as on the animal species susceptible to those. For entomologists, zoological gardens are ideal research locations, as they provide an environment with a high diversity of habitats and potential blood hosts for haematophagous arthropods in a confined space.
Studying mosquito biology will become even more significant in the future, since in a world that is getting smaller, both potential vectors and pathogens are regularly introduced into areas where they did not occur before. Therefore, it would be desirable if more studies targeting ecological as well as infectiological aspects of vector species in zoological gardens in Germany were carried out.
Species persistence in the face of rapidly progressing environmental change requires adaptive responses that allow organisms to either cope with the novel conditions in their habitat or to follow their environmental niche in space. A poleward range shift due to global warming induced habitat loss in the south has been predicted for the lesser horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus hipposideros. Theoretical as well as numerous empirical studies link range expansion success to increased dispersal and reproduction rates due to spatial sorting and r-selection resulting from low population densities at the expansion front. R. hipposideros females however are highly philopatric and the species’ life history reflects a K- rather than an r-strategy, encompassing a long life span and limited individual annual reproductive output. I therefore investigated if adaptations in these traits determining range expansion success (dispersal and reproduction) can be observed in this bat species of high conservation concern. Genetic diversity presents a critical factor for adaptive responses to global change, both for range expansion and for coping with novel environmental conditions. I hence explored the genetic diversity levels of European R. hipposideros leading edge populations and their drivers for an assessment of these populations’ evolutionary potential and the development of conservation recommendations.
Comparing range expansion traits between an expanding R. hipposideros metapopulation in Germany and a non-expanding one in France revealed that range expansion was associated with an increase in juvenile survival and fecundity, and no decrease in adult survival. These results demonstrate than an increase in reproduction and growth rates is generally possible in R. hipposideros, indicating a potential adaptation (sensu lato) to range expansion. A positive correlation between adult and juvenile survival in the expanding metapopulation suggests higher resource acquisition in the expanding metapopulation, giving rise to the question if the observed demographic changes have a genetic basis or if they are rather induced by differences in environmental conditions between the two metapopulations. Long-term range expansion success requires adaptive evolutionary changes. The relative contribution of the former and that of undirected changes resulting e.g. from differences in resource availability therefore will have to be investigated in more detail in the future to allow predictions about range expansion dynamics in R. hipposideros.
The number of individuals within a radius of approximately 60 to 90 km around a population (as a measure of connectivity) was identified as the main positive driver of the studied populations’ genetic diversity. Overall genetic diversity levels in German R. hipposideros populations were found to be reduced compared to populations in France as a legacy of demographic bottlenecks resulting from severe population declines in the mid-20th century. This finding is alarming as future range expansion can be expected to entail a further decrease in genetic diversity. The resulting loss of genetic diversity can be expected to be particularly strong in R. hipposideros due to the detected dependence of genetic diversity on connectivity, because range expansion often results in small and patchy populations.
Protecting and ideally re-installing genetic diversity in R. hipposideros leading edge populations therefore presents a conservation goal of utmost importance. To achieve this endeavour, conservation efforts should target the protection of extensive networks of well-connected populations. Geographical concentration of individuals should be avoided and populations in key locations that connect clusters must be protected particularly well to prevent populations from becoming isolated. Continuous, regular monitoring of population trends is also important for a quick registration of disturbances or threats, and the subsequent rapid development of countermeasures to preclude further demographic declines.
The reduced levels of genetic diversity in the German metapopulation precluded a reliable quantification of dispersal rates due to the reduced power of discrimination between individuals. While ongoing re-colonization and the establishment of new maternity colonies provide evidence for increased dispersal in the expanding metapopulation, evaluating the expected range expansion velocity of R. hipposideros in relation to the estimated velocity of global warming induced habitat loss will require the confirmation of the existing preliminary dispersal data by employing more genetic markers.
Mit der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden über einen Zeitraum von sechs Jahren zwei unabhängige, kleinräumige Windwürfe im Nationalpark Vorpommersche Boddenlandschaft (2000 bis 2005) und im Müritz Nationalpark (2002 bis 2007) ökofaunistisch untersucht. Dabei wurde die Coleopterenfauna von drei Windwurfflächen sowie drei ausgewählten Referenzflächen aus verschiedenen Straten beprobt. Zur Erfassung der xylobionten Coleopteren et Diversa kamen verschiedene Fallensysteme in den unterschiedlichen Straten zur Anwendung (Bodenfallen und Schlitzfallen in allen Jahren; Kronenfallen, Fensterfallen, Farbschalen sowie Käferzuchten und Handaufsammlungen nur teilweise in einzelnen Jahren). Insgesamt konnten 82.981 Coleopteren (exkl. Staphylinidae) aus 708 Arten und 80 verschiedenen Familien ermittelt werden. Dabei zeigte sich besonders in den ersten Jahren nach dem Windwurf eine große Attraktivität der Windwurfgebiete auf xylophage Coleopterenarten. Erst im weiteren Verlauf kam es zu einer Abnahme der Xylophagen zu Gunsten von verschiedenen Pilz- und Mulmbesiedlern. Im gesamten Untersuchungszeitraum ließen sich kaum Unterschiede der Coleopterenzoenosen zwischen dem Windwurf und der entsprechenden Vergleichsfläche herausstellen. Durch den direkten Vergleich mit einer benachbarten Referenzfläche verdeutlichte sich, dass vor allem regionale Einflüsse, insbesondere das Arteninventar der umgebenden Flächen, für die rasche Besiedlung von Bedeutung waren. Als typische Leitarten der Windwurfsukzession erwiesen sich verschiedene Vertreter der Borkenkäferfamilie (Scolytiden), welche auf den Windwurfflächen mit insgesamt etwa 12.500 Individuen aus 44 verschiedenen Arten (entspricht etwa 13 %!) vertreten waren. Dennoch ließen sich keine expandierenden Kalamitäten forstrelevanter Coleopteren ausmachen, lediglich im Darßwald kam es zu einer Gradation des Buchdruckers Ips typographus und seiner Begleitarten, welche im dritten Jahr nach dem Sturmereignis ihren Gipfel erreichte. Für viele Käferarten stellten gerade die Windwurfflächen ein wichtiges Refugium als Lebensraum mit der Möglichkeit zum genetischen Austausch dar. Dabei spielen gerade diese kleinräumigen und mosaikartig verteilten Bereiche der Windwurfareale eine bedeutende Rolle als Trittsteine für die Ausbreitung seltener Coleopteren, was sich sehr eindrucksvoll anhand der ermittelten Zahl der gefährdeten Arten in dieser Untersuchung abzeichnete. Insgesamt konnten 124 Arten aus 49 Familien in der Roten Liste Deutschlands sowie 72 faunistisch bedeutsame Funde für Mecklenburg-Vorpommern erbracht werden. Mit der vorliegenden Arbeit zum Windwurfgeschehen im Norddeutschen Tiefland konnten somit einerseits verschiedene biologische Aspekte, wie die Betrachtung der Phänologie, die Zusammensetzung der Coleopterenzoenosen sowie der Nachweis neuer bzw. seltener Arten aufgezeigt werden. Andererseits wurde herausgestellt, dass diese kleinräumigen Windwürfe kaum eine forstwirtschaftliche Relevanz haben, da es zu keiner lang anhaltenden und sich vergrößernden Kalamität einzelner Schadinsekten (bes. aus der Familie der Scolytiden) kam.
Species are the basic units of evolution and biodiversity, and the process of speciation has been one of the most important questions in biology. The evolution of species with common descent is considered to be mainly driven by natural and sexual selection. The material basis and mechanical cause of organismic evolution were recognized during the formation of the modern synthesis of the evolutionary theory in the early 20th century, providing the framework for speciation studies. During this period, the biological species concept was developed in the frame of population genetics, putting emphasis on the reproductive isolation between populations. The phylogenetic species concept developed in the 1980s, on the other hand, does not make any particular assumption about evolutionary or speciation processes. It defines species via their unique combination of character states which are compatible with phylogenetic practices. However, the aforementioned two species concepts are difficult to apply in alpha-taxonomy, where newly discovered species are largely described by the morphological (typological) species concept for practical reasons. Nevertheless, the description of morphological species provides the basis for further assessments of species delimitation via other species concepts and approaches. One of the tools for assisting the identification and discovery of animal species is DNA barcoding, which uses a standard region of mitochondrial DNA sequence as a universal DNA barcode. However, its assumption of intraspecific genetic distances being smaller than interspecific genetic distances does not always hold. Species-level poly-/paraphyly is prevalent due to the discrepancy between the phylogenies of mitochondrial DNA and species. This suggests that the application of DNA barcodes must be combined with an integrative taxonomic approach. Beside the application as a tool for assisting species identification, the information from mitochondrial DNA sequences opens up a window for looking into the complex history of species.
Sexual selection is a potential mechanism driving the evolution of species. It favors traits that increase mating probability and mating success. It can result from intrasexual competition, female preference or sexual conflict. However, previous comparative studies using the degree of sexual dimorphism as a proxy for the strength of sexual selection have yielded inconsistent results as to the relationship between sexual selection and species richness. A possible cause of the inferred low association are factors other than sexual selection, which can also lead to the evolution of sexual dimorphism, such as selection for increased female fecundity. In order to assess the effect of sexual selection on speciation, the lability and evolvability of traits need to be studied that are clearly under sexual selection.
The aim of this thesis is to improve the knowledge about dwarf spider (Erigoninae, Linyphiidae) diversity and taxonomy, and to assess the evolutionary patterns of dimorphic traits that are under sexual selection. I focused on the abundant and diverse male prosomal modifications in dwarf spiders that are linked to the transfer of secretions from the male to the female during courtship and mating (gustatory courtship). This approach explores the process of speciation and the role of sexual selection on species diversification. I described new erigonine species and revised the classification of known species based on phylogenetic analyses. I also applied X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) to investigate the distribution and evolutionary pattern of the gustatory glands to tease apart the evolution of prosomal shape and glandular equipment.
This cumulative thesis consists of three publications:
Publication 1: This publication aimed at contributing to the knowledge of erigonine diversity. The genus Shaanxinus previously contained only two species from China. I collected dwarf spiders from multiple locations in Taiwan from above-ground vegetations with a seldom applied collecting method. Inspection of the collected material resulted in the discovery of 13 Shaanxinus species. An additional species from Vietnam was described from a museum collection. I provided a revision of the genus Shaanxinus. A phylogenetic analysis using morphological characters was conducted for determining the possible generic synamomorphies. I also reconstructed the glandular distribution associated with male prosomal modifications, as well as the detailed structure of a male secondary sexual organ (pedipalp) by micro-CT. Furthermore, I conducted phylogenetic analyses based on sequences from two mitochondrial and one nuclear loci, and assessed the efficacy of different criteria in species identification using DNA barcoding. Distinction of morphologically similar species have been assisted by molecular data. The species level poly-/paraphyly found in mitochondrial DNA sequences caused the low efficacy of many distance- and tree-based species identification methods, while the nearest neighbor method showed high identification success. The non-monophyly is likely caused by instances of interspecific hybridization and recent parapatric speciation. The genus Shaanxinus thus lend itself as an ideal group for congeneric phylogeographic studies addressing the interactions between closely related species. Published in: Lin, S.-W., Lopardo, L., Haase, M. & Uhl, G. 2019. Taxonomic revision of the dwarf spider genus Shaanxinus Tanasevitch, 2006 (Araneae, Linyphiidae, Erigoninae), with new species from Taiwan and Vietnam. Organism Diversity & Evolution, 19, 211-276.
Publication 2: Sexually dimorphic prosomal modifications that are related to gustatory courtship occur in many dwarf spider species. These features evolved in the context of sexual selection, which has a potential effect on species diversification. In contrast to many
erigonine genera which present little variability in male prosomal traits, the genus Oedothorax presents higher diversity in male prosomal structures among species not only in the position and shapes of the modifications, but also in the degree of modification, ranging from absent to highly elaborated. This genus thus lends itself as a suitable target group for studying the effect of gustatory-courtship-related traits on species diversification. I conducted a revision of the 82 species previously belonging to this genus. Based on the result of a phylogenetic analysis, this genus was re-delimited with 10 species as Oedothorax sensu stricto, while taxonomic decisions were made for other species including synonymization with species from other genera and transferring species to other existing and newly defined genera. 25 species were deemed as “Oedothorax” incertae sedis. The reconstruction of character state evolution suggested multiple origins of specific prosomal modification types. Convergent evolution of these traits among different lineages suggests that sexual selection has played an important role in the species diversification of dwarf spiders. Published in: Lin, S.-W., Lopardo, L. & Uhl, G. 2021. Evolution of nuptial-gift-related male prosomal structures: taxonomic revision and cladistic analysis of the genus Oedothorax (Araneae: Linyphiidae: Erigoninae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, XX, 1-168.
Publication 3: Although sexually dimorphic traits have inspired the concept of sexual selection as the driving force of their evolution, they might also have evolved due to other ecological factors. These factors include the sexual signal adaptation to the environment as well as sexual differences in ecological relations and parental investment. In contrast, the gustatory courtship in dwarf spiders is associated with sexually dimorphic male prosomal modifications, which have clearly evolved in the context of sexual selection. Multiple origins of various external prosomal modifications have been shown in erigonine phylogeny, but the evolutionary pattern of the associated glands has not been investigated. Our phylogenetic analysis incorporated the characters related to the glandular distribution in the male prosoma as well as the external shapes yielded from X-ray micro-computed-tomography showed a single origin of gland among the investigated erigonine taxa. The internal anatomy revealed previously undetected trait lability in attachments of muscles to the cuticular structures, as well as the presence/absence and differences in glandular distribution even in species without external modification. Our finding further supports that erigonine male prosomal traits are under divergent selection, and corroborates the argument that erigonines are a suitable group for investigating the effect of sexual selection on speciation. Published in: Lin, S.-W., Lopardo, L. & Uhl, G. 2021. Diversification through gustatory courtship: an X‑ray micro‑computed tomography study on dwarf spiders. Frontiers in Zoology, 18: 51.
The results of this thesis corroborate the importance of applying phylogenetic methods and an integrative approach in the description of new species, as well as in revising taxa which might not be monophyletic. Overall, the studies contributed to a more comprehensive knowledge about erigonine species diversity, phylogeny and the possible diversifying effect of sexual selection on male traits associated with gustatory courtship.
In the thesis the reason for the low breeding success of white rhinos in captivity was investigated and solutions suggested. It was also investigated how to improve management of free ranging populations. It was establish whether female white rhinoceros choose their mates and, if so, which factors influence their choice. The study also seeks to establish whether there is any relationship between androgens, environmental factors and mating activity. The study was carried between March 1997 and May 1999 on a private game farm in South Africa. The study animals enjoyed conditions similar to those enjoyed by free-ranging populations. A non-invasive endocrine monitoring technique was developed to assess the androgen concentrations in faeces of male white rhinos. The body and horn size of adult males was measured, the concentration of testosterone in their faeces determined, and the characteristics of their territories investigated. All of these factors were then set in relation to their reproductive success. The reproductive success was established by genetic analysis of fatherhood using AFLP methods. The quality of male territories was described by vegetation structure, tree and grass species composition, the availability of frequently foraged or selected grass species as well as the nutritional composition of the forage. In addition, the influence of seasonal rainfall, presence of receptive females and territorial activity on androgen metabolite concentrations was established.
Climate change threatens marine ecosystems by simultaneous alterations and fluctuations in several abiotic factors like temperature, salinity and pH. Therefore, a strong ability to cope with varying environmental factors is indispensable for marine organisms. Especially, larvae of meroplanktonic species will be affected by predicted alterations in environmental conditions as planktonic larval stages are considered the most sensitive stages during life history (Anger 2001).
The European shore crab Carcinus maenas, as an ecological key species, was chosen as a model species to investigate multiple stressor effects on early life history stages of marine meroplanktonic invertebrates. The life cycle of C. maenas is biphasic consisting of five pelagic larval stages (four zoeal and one megalopal stage), followed by benthic juvenile and adult phases. The metamorphic molt from the last zoeal stage to the semi-benthic Megalopa includes dramatic changes in ecology, habitat, behavior, feeding, morphology, and physiology. During life history, zoeal stages of C. maenas are of particular interest in the course of climate change as these stages are more vulnerable than the following developmental stages to alterations in abiotic factors.
The aim of the present thesis was to develop an integrative view on effects of long-term exposure, from hatching to metamorphosis, to increased temperature and hypo-osmotic conditions on early life history stages of C. maenas. We wanted to gain insights into larval responses to climate driven environmental variables, more specifically, on how tolerance to low salinity is affected by increased temperatures.
Consequently, the present study investigated the effect of long-term exposure to twelve different sub-lethal temperature and salinity combinations in an ecological relevant range on larval development of C. maenas. In a multidisciplinary approach, larval responses in performance (survival and developmental duration) and morphology were measured. Furthermore, analysis on larval ontogeny and organogenesis created the foundation for analysis of larval response to multiple stressors in anatomy.
Results of the present thesis demonstrated that despite their different life-styles and external morphology, brachyuran larvae are smaller versions of their adults when regarding their inner organization: the adult bauplan unfolds from organ anlagen compressed into miniature organisms. In addition, they provide an overall picture of seemingly gradual organogenesis across larval development and the metamorphic molt, an insight that contrasts with the abrupt external morphological changes during metamorphosis. Gradual anatomical changes in e.g. osmoregulatory structures like gills and antennal glands allowed for ontogenetic shifts of tolerance to temperature and salinity during zoeal development and successive increase in osmo- and thermoregulatory capability. On the other hand, osmoregulatory structures as seen for adults were underdeveloped during zoeal development and therefore do not qualify for osmoregulatory function for these stages. This potentially explains the higher sensitivity of zoeae to hypo-osmotic conditions.
Early life history stages of C. maenas were affected on all response levels by the tested multiple stressors. The interaction of temperature and salinity was of antagonistic type, resulting in general reduced stress for larval stages. Nevertheless, low salinity had a strong negative impact on survival, while increased temperature caused ann acceleration of development. Furthermore, the size of zoeae of C. maenas was driven by the interaction of temperature and salinity, with extreme conditions, causing diminished growth, thus resulting in smaller larval size. On the other hand, larval shape was only slightly affected by changes of abiotic factors. Volume of the digestive gland and the heart of larvae from long-term exposure to sub-lethal temperatures and salinities showed high variability.
Larval responses were affected by the stressors intensities: moderately high temperatures lessened the negative effects of low salinities, while extreme high temperatures exceeded the ameliorating effect of temperature on stressful salinity conditions. On the other hand, the tolerance to temperature and salinity increased during larval development indicating an ontogenetic shift in response to multiple stressors with development. In addition, performance, morphology, and multiple stressor interaction showed intrapopulation variability among larvae hatched from different females, and between experimental periods.
In conclusion, this study highlighted direct effects of abiotic factors on all investigated response levels in early life history stages of the meroplanktonic larvae of the invertebrate C. maenas. High mortality rates combined with higher sensitivity confirm that planktonic early life history stages are the bottleneck during life history of this species. Nevertheless, early life history stages of C. maenas had the ability to cope with wide ranges of changing environmental factors. The antagonism between temperature and salinity on larval development offers potential for early life history stages to persist in a changing world. Furthermore, anatomical structures allow for slight eurytolerance and potentially for compensation of abiotic stress. Overall, slight increases in temperature, driven by climate change may enable larvae of C. maenas to tolerate exposure to moderately low salinities and, combinedwith intrapopulation variability, potentially allows for population persistence. Summarized, this study emphasizes the importance of testing a wide range of ecologically relevant traits in developing pelagic larvae in order to properly characterize their response to environmental change.
Changes in abundance and phenology of planktonic larvae like the zoeae of C. maenas have major potential to change a species‘ population structure significantly, and furthermore indirectly affect whole community and ecosystem structures. Therefore, this thesis may serve as a bridge to future studies in evolutionary and ecological developmental biology.
Herzinsuffizienz ist eine der häufigsten Ursachen für Morbidität und Mortalität weltweit. Zum jetzigen Zeitpunkt ist die Herztransplantation im fortgeschrittenen Stadium der Erkrankung der einzige kurative Therapieansatz. Durch den Einsatz von Stammzellen als Therapieoption der Herzinsuffizienz konnten in den letzten Jahren im Rahmen von tierexperimentellen und klinischen Studien zahlreiche vielversprechende Daten gewonnen werden. Ziel der Stammzelltransplantationen ist es, das geschädigte Gewebe zu ersetzen, die Gefäßneubildung zu induzieren und somit die kardiale Funktion aufrechtzuerhalten. Kardialen Stammzellen wird durch die Fähigkeit der Selbsterneuerung, Proliferation und der Differenzierung in spezialisierte Zelltypen ein großes Regenerationspotential zugeschrieben. Weiterhin wurde ein positiver Einfluss von kardialen Stammzellen auf die Gefäßneubildung mittels parakriner Effekte beschrieben. Obwohl durch die Transplantation von kardialen Stammzellen eine Regeneration des geschädigten Gewebes, z.B. nach einem Myokardinfarkt, beobachtet wurde, ist noch wenig über die genauen Wirkungsweisen der eingesetzten Stammzellen bekannt. Zudem bleibt unklar, welchen Einfluss eine Schädigung des Herzens auf die Stammzellen und ihre Funktion hat und welche Faktoren dabei eine Rolle spielen. Die Existenz von residenten kardialen Stammzellen konnte sowohl im tierischen als auch im humanen Herzen nachgewiesen werden. Jedoch ist bis heute nicht geklärt, warum der Pool an residenten kardialen Progenitorzellen nicht merklich zur Regeneration nach einer Schädigung beitragen kann. Die vorliegende Arbeit befasste sich daher mit der Untersuchung der Funktion muriner residenter kardialer Progenitorzellen, die positiv für das Stammzellantigen-1 (Sca-1) sind, unter physiologischen und pathophysiologischen Bedingungen. Hierfür wurde der Einfluss des Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosteron Systems (RAAS), welches entscheidend an der Entwicklung einer Herzinsuffizienz beteiligt ist, auf die Funktion Sca-1 positiver Zellen in vitro untersucht. Anschließend wurde der Einfluss pathophysiologischer Aldosteronkonzentrationen, wie sie im Rahmen einer Herzinsuffizienz nachweisbar sind, auf die sekretorische Aktivität der Sca-1 positiven Zellen bestimmt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass die Komponenten des RAAS die Migrationsrate Sca-1 positiver Zellen dosis- und zeitabhängig beeinflussen, wobei vor allem pathophysiologische Konzentrationen von Aldosteron eine signifikante Steigerung der Migrationsrate der Sca-1 positiven Zellen bewirkten. Des Weiteren konnte eine Mineralokortikoidrezeptor-vermittelte Wirkungsweise des Aldosterons auf die Funktion der Sca-1 positiven Zellen festgestellt werden, welche durch den Einsatz der Aldosteron-Antagonisten Spironolakton und Eplerenon inhibiert wurde. Anhand der an Sca-1 positiven Zellen durchgeführten Sekretomanalysen konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich die sekretorische Aktivität kardialer Progenitorzellen unter physiologischen und pathophysiologischen Bedingungen unterscheidet. Pathophysiologische Stimuli führen zu einer erhöhten sekretorischen Aktivität kardialer Progenitorzellen. Die Analyse der sekretierten löslichen Faktoren deutet auf eine Beteiligung Sca-1 positiver Zellen an Reparatur- und Regenerationsprozessen mittels parakriner Mechanismen nach einer Schädigung hin. Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse zeigen, dass mit dem Mineralokortikoid Aldosteron ein Faktor identifiziert wurde, welcher zur Optimierung der Stammzelltherapie, z.B. im Rahmen einer Herzinsuffizienz, dienen kann. Weiterhin konnte in dieser Arbeit das Verhalten und die Funktion kardialer Progenitorzellen unter pathophysiologischen Bedingungen näher charakterisiert werden und mögliche Mechanismen aufgezeigt werden, über welche kardiale Stammzellen an Regenerationsprozessen beteiligt sein können.
Emerging infectious diseases are among the greatest threats to human, animal and plant health as well as to global biodiversity. They often arise following the human-mediated transport of a pathogen beyond its natural geographic range, where host species are typically not well adapted due to a lack of co-evolutionary host-pathogen dynamics. One such pathogen is the fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), which causes White-Nose disease in hibernating bats. While Pd was first observed in North America where it has led to mass-mortalities in some bat species, the pathogen originates from Eurasia where infection is not associated with mortality. Most of the Pd research has focused on the invasive North American range, which likely underestimated the genetic structure of the pathogen and the role it might play in the disease dynamics.
In my work, I therefore evaluated the genetic structure of Pd in its native range with the aim of uncovering cryptic diversity and further use population genetic data to address some key ecological aspects of the disease dynamics. With an extensive reference collection of more than 5,000 isolates from 27 countries I first demonstrated strong differentiation between two monophyletic clades across several genetic measures (multi-locus genotypes, full genome long-read sequencing and Illumina NovaSeq on isolate pools). These findings are consistent with the presence of two cryptic species which are both causative agents of bat White-Nose disease (‘Pd-1’, which corresponds to P. destructans sensu stricto, and ‘Pd-2’). Both species exist in the same geographic range and co-occur in the same hibernacula (i.e., in sympatry), though with specialised host preferences. I further described the fine-scale population structure in Eurasia which revealed that most genotypes are unique to single hibernacula (more than 95% of genotypes). The associated differences in microsatellite allele frequencies among hibernacula allowed the use of assignment methods to assign the North American isolates (exclusively Pd-1) to regions in Eurasia. Hence, a region in Ukraine (Podilia) is the most likely origin of the North American introduction.
To gain further insights into the spatial and temporal dynamics of White-Nose disease on a localised scale, several hibernacula were sampled with high intensity (artificial hibernaculum in Germany and natural karst caves in Bulgaria). Low rates of Pd gene flow were observed even among closely situated hibernacula. This indicates that Pd does not remain viable on bats over summer or it would be frequently exchanged among bats (and hence hibernacula) resulting in a homogenous distribution of genotypes. Instead, bats need to become re-infected each hibernation season to explain the yearly re-occurrence of White-Nose disease. Given the distribution and richness of Pd genotypes on hibrnacula walls and infected bats of the same hibernacula, bats become infected from the hibernacula walls when they return after summer. This means that environmental reservoirs exist within hibernacula (i.e., the walls) on which Pd spores persist during bat absence and which drive the yearly re-occurrence of White-Nose disease. In an experimental setup, I confirmed the long-term viability of Pd spores on abiotic substrate for at least two years and furthermore discovered temporal variations in Pd spores’ ability to germinate. In fact, these variations followed a seasonal pattern consistent with the timing of bats absence (reduced germination) and presence (increased germination) and could indicate adaptations of Pd to the bats’ life-cycle. The infection of bats from environmental reservoirs hence seems to be a central aspect of White-Nose disease dynamics and Pd biology.
Pds ability to remain viable for extended periods outside the host increases its risk of being anthropogenically transported and might have played a role in the emergence of White-Nose disease in North America. The existence of a second species (Pd-2) poses a great additional danger to North American bats considering that its introduction there could lead to deaths and associated population declines in so-far unaffected species given what is known about differing host species preferences in Eurasian bats. Even within the native range of Pd, the movement of Pd between differentiated fungal populations could facilitate genetic exchanges (e.g., through sexual reproduction) between genetically distant genotypes. Such genetic exchanges could lead to phenotypic jumps in pathogenicity or host-species preferences and should hence be prevented.
The native range of a pathogen holds great potential to better understand the genetic and ecological basis of a (wildlife) disease. My work informs about the dangers associated with the accidental transport of Pd (and other pathogens) and highlights the need for ‘prezootic’ biosecurity-oriented strategies to prevent disease outbreaks globally. Once a pathogen has arrived in a new geographic range, and particularly if it has environmentally durable spores (as demonstrated for Pd), it will be difficult/impossible to eradicate. Furthermore, a pathogen’s ability to remain viable outside the host and infect them from environmental reservoirs has been associated with an increased risk of species extinctions and needs to be considered when designing management strategies to mitigate disease impact.
As the effects of anthropogenic climate change become more pronounced, it is critical to understand if and how species can persist in novel environments. Range-expanding species provide a natural experiment to study this topic: by studying the factors contributing to successful colonization of new habitats, we can gain insight into what influences organisms’ adaptive potential. The wasp spider, Argiope bruennichi, has expanded its range from warm, oceanic and Mediterranean climate zones (populations in this region are referred to as “ancestral” or “core”) into a new thermal niche, the continental climate of the Baltic States and Scandinavia (referred to as “expanding” or “edge”) within the last century. Past work demonstrated that the expanding populations are European in origin, but are more diverse than the ancestral populations, due to genetic admixture. This discovery led to the following questions, which are investigated in this dissertation: (i) Was the successful colonization of colder, more continental northern climates due to phenotypic plasticity or genetic adaptation? (ii) If A. bruennichi’s establishment of northern latitudes can be attributed to genetic adaptation, did selection act on standing genetic variation, on genetic variation introduced via admixture/introgression, on specific genomic regions, or on novel mutations? (iii) Is there a role of the microbiome in the A. bruennichi range expansion?
In Chapter 1, we assembled a chromosome-level genome for the species: the first such high-quality genome for a spider, which we made use of as a resource to provide the genomic context of single nucleotide polymorphisms in our primary study on genetic adaptation and phenotypic plasticity (Chapter 3). The genome assembly also opened the door to many new projects, such as the study presented in Chapter 2. In Chapter 2, the chromosome-level resolution of our assembly allowed us to identify the sex chromosomes in A. bruennichi. Due to the X1X20 sex chromosome system, where males have one copy of two X chromosomes, and females have two copies, the X chromosomes have a lower effective population size, and lower recombination rate, than autosomes. These characteristics give rise to the theoretical prediction of increased evolutionary rates in sex chromosomes. Knowing the identity of the sex chromosomes in our A. bruennichi genome assembly will allow us to test if there is stronger differentiation between populations on the X chromosomes.
Chapter 3 represents the central study of this dissertation. We performed a reciprocal transplant common garden experiment to assess plasticity and adaptation in cold tolerance traits, using spiderlings from the core of the range in France, and the edge of the range in Estonia. We combined this with data on clinal variation in adult phenotypes (body size, pigmentation, and fecundity) and genotypes in a transect across the European range. This study revealed a strong signature of genetic adaptation for increased cold tolerance in edge populations, and clear genetic differentiation of ancestral and expanding populations over a very short geographic distance, despite gene flow. We provide genome-wide evidence for adaptive introgression, and conclude that the A. bruennichi range
expansion was enabled by adaptive introgression, but has reached a poleward range limit.
Interactions with microbes shape all aspects of eukaryotic life. Endosymbiotic bacteria have been shown to alter the thermal tolerance of arthropod hosts, and influence dispersal behavior in spiders. With this background, in Chapter 4, we asked whether the microbiome might play a role in the rapid range expansion of A. bruennichi. We characterized the microbiome in various dissected tissues of spiders from two populations. Although we found no obvious differences between populations or tissues, this study yielded the discovery of a novel, dominant, vertically transmitted symbiont with astoundingly low similarity to all other sequenced bacteria. Since that discovery, we have found evidence of the unknown symbiont in A. bruennichi populations across the Palearctic (unpublished data), making it relatively unlikely to play a role in the range expansion.
By studying the establishment and subsequent differentiation of core versus edge populations of A. bruennichi following range expansion, we were able to gain insight into the evolutionary and ecological processes that allowed this species to successfully cope with novel environments. The rapidity with which local adaptation arose in A. bruennichi suggests that evolutionary adaptation to novel environments is possible over short time periods. However, this may only be possible in species with sufficient standing genetic variation, or with genetic variation introduced via admixture, as in A. bruennichi, which has important implications for our understanding of species responses in the face of ongoing global climate change.
Podocytes are highly specialized kidney cells that are attached to the outer aspect of the glomerular capillaries and are damaged in more than 75% of patients with an impaired renal function. This specific cell type is characterized by a complex 3D morphology which is essential for proper filtration of the blood. Any changes of this unique morphology are directly associated with a deterioration of the size-selectivity of the filtration barrier. Since podocytes are postmitotic, there is no regenerative potential and the loss of these cells is permanent. Therefore, identification of small molecules that are able to protect podocytes is highly important. The aim of this work was to establish an in vivo high-content drug screening in zebrafish larvae. At first, we looked for a reliable podocyte injury model which is fast, reproducible and easy to induce. Since adriamycin is commonly used in rodents to damage podocytes, we administered it to the larvae and analyzed the phenotype by in vivo microscopy, (immuno-) histology and RT-(q)PCR. However, adriamycin did not result in a podocyte-specific injury in zebrafish larvae. Subsequently, we decided to use a genetic ablation model which specifically damages podocytes in zebrafish larvae. Treatment of transgenic zebrafish larvae with 80 µM metronidazole for 48 hours generated an injury resembling focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis which is characterized by podocyte foot process effacement, cell depletion and proteinuria. Following this, we established an in vivo high-content screening system by the use of a specific screening zebrafish strain. This screening strain expresses a circulating 78 kDa eGFP-labeled Vitamin D-binding fusion protein, which passes the filtration barrier only after glomerular injury. Therefore, we had an excellent readout to follow podocyte injury in vivo. We generated a custom image analysis software that measures the fluorescence intensity of podocytes and the vasculature automatically on a large scale. Furthermore, we screened a specific drug library consisting of 138 compounds for protective effects on larval podocytes using this in vivo high-content system. The analysis identified several initial hits and the subsequent validation experiments identified belinostat as a reliable and significant protective agent for podocytes. These results led to a patent request and belinostat is a promising candidate for a clinical use and will be tested in mammalian podocyte injury models.
American and European foulbrood (AFB and EFB) are devastating bacterial brood diseases of honey bees (Apis mellifera), which cause colony and economic losses worldwide. The causative agent of AFB, Paenibacillus larvae, are grouped into different ERIC-genotypes (Enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus) the two most common of which are ERIC I and ERIC II. In the field, the differentiation between the symptoms of AFB and EFB (caused by Melissococcus plutonius) can be difficult. The differentiation between the ERIC-genotypes in the field based on the symptoms is not possible at all. The differentiation between the ERIC-genotypes of P. larvae during diagnosis can help to understand the spread of the AFB disease. Hence, a tool capable of detection and distinction between the bacterial brood diseases and the P. larvae-genotypes is needed. For the optimal prevention of disease spread, the diagnosis needs to be fast, cheap and reliable.
This study focuses on the development of a diagnostic sandwich ELISA and a lateral flow device (LFD) for the detection and distinction of EFB and AFB, including the differentiation of the two main occurring P. larvae genotypes. The therefore necessary specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) were obtained by immunizing mice with M. plutonius or P. larvae strains belonging to either ERC I or ERIC II. The generated mAbs were characterized for their specificity towards the target bacteria and for their cross reactivity towards other bee-associated bacteria. The screening for suitable mAbs resulted in two specific mAbs against M. plutonius, two against P. larvae in general and two against ERIC II. In combination with the anti-P. larvae mAbs, the anti-ERIC II mAbs were used for genotyping.
In order to evaluate the suitability of the mAbs, their antigens were identified. The target antigens of the produced mAbs turned out to be proteins that could be of further interest as they seem to be involved in the pathogenesis and host-pathogen-interaction. The mAbs with the same antigens were used in the sandwich ELISA for testing the cross reactivity and strain detection. Suitable mAb combinations were used for LFD production. The LFDs were then successfully tested against several field isolates of AFB and EFB causing agents and no cross reactivity with bee-associated bacteria was detected. The P. larvae strains used for mAb testing were genotyped to obtain information about the respective genetic variance. In the process atypical P. larvae strains were identified and further characterized using the generated mAbs. The ability of the mAbs to also recognise the atypical strains as well indicates that the mAbs bind to an antigen that is common among different P. larvae strains.
All in all, a fast tool for detection and differentiation of EFB, AFB and the two ERIC-genotypes was developed that has to be further tested for its reliability in the field.
Klimawandel, Änderungen der Landnutzung und Habitatzerstörung sowie die Globalisierung tragen zu einer zunehmenden Ausbreitung von bekannten und noch unbekannten Viren bei, die eine Gefahr für Mensch und Tier darstellen können. Um potenziell gefährliche Viren frühzeitig zu entdecken, kann das in dieser Arbeit vorgestellte Protokoll für einen pan-viralen DNA-Microarray-gestützten (PVM) Virusnachweis verwendet werden, der optional mit einer Hochdurchsatzsequenzierung gekoppelt werden kann.
Für die Etablierung des PVM-Protokolls wurde die Leistungsfähigkeit von drei Probenbearbeitungs- und Datenauswertungsmethoden beim Nachweis von zwei Modellviren, einem DNA-Virus und einem RNA-Virus, verglichen. Für die Kopplung mit dem PVM wurden verschiedene Systeme für die Hochdurchsatzsequenzierung verwendet.
Das Ziel der Arbeit war die Etablierung eines optimierten PVM-Protokolls für einen robusten, breiten Virusnachweis, welcher einzeln oder in Kombination mit einer Hochdurchsatzsequenzierung als Teil einer mehrstufigen Analysepipeline verwendet werden kann.
Beim Nachweis beider Modellviren wies die Library-basierte Probenbearbeitungs- und Datenauswertungsmethode Limma die höchste Sensitivität auf. In der darauf folgenden Validierung konnten alle Viren, unabhängig von ihrer Genomorganisation und Komplexität der Probenmaterialien, korrekt identifiziert werden. In zwei publizierten Studien konnte der Nachweis der zum Zeitpunkt der Untersuchung noch unbekannten BBLV und SqAdV-1 gezeigt werden. Durch die Rückgewinnung von Virus-spezifischen Nukleinsäuren vom PVM und der anschließenden Sequenzierung
mittels Hochdurchsatzsequenzierung konnte das SqAdV-1 im Rahmen einer mehrstufigen Analysepipeline vollständig identifiziert, annotiert und taxonomisch eingeordnet werden. Durch die Kombination von PVM und Hochdurchsatzsequenzierung wurden für sechs Viren eine Virus-spezifische Anreicherung und ein damit verbundener Gewinn an Sequenzinformation erreicht. Die Library-basierte Probenbearbeitung mit Limma erlaubte einen robusten und sensitiven Virusnachweis; deshalb wurden beide Methoden für das PVM-Protokoll ausgewählt. Die Fähigkeit des hier etablierten PVM-Protokolls, Viren unabhängig von der Genomorganisation und in komplexen Probenmaterialien zu identifizieren, zeigt dessen Gleichwertigkeit mit bereits etablierten PVM-Systemen. Die Verwendung des PVM-Protokolls in einer mehrstufigen Analysepipeline erlaubt auch die Identifikation von bisher unbekannten Viren. Der durch die Kombination mit einer Hochdurchsatzsequenzierung erreichte Gewinn an Sequenzinformation ermöglicht eine Identifizierung und detailliertere Charakterisierung von Viren.
Der PVM stellt einzeln und in Verbindung mit einem Hochdurchsatzsequenzierungs- System ein wertvolles Werkzeug für die Virusdiagnostik dar, dessen Anwendung den Zeitaufwand für die Virusidentifizierung deutlich reduzieren kann.
Abstract
The two important mechanisms influencing the response of phytoplankton communities to alterations of abiotic factors in their environment are difficult to distinguish: species sorting resulting from a change in interspecific competitive pressure, and phenotypic plasticity (here explicitly physiological plasticity i.e. species‐specific physiological adjustment). A shift in species composition as well as physiological adjustments in species can lead to changes in fatty acid composition that determine the food quality for zooplankton consumers.
We used phytoplankton communities consisting of five species and exposed them to two different light intensities, two light conditions (constant and variable), and two levels of phosphorus supply. Changes in fatty acid and species composition were analyzed. We compared community pairs differing in one factor by calculating the Bray‐Curtis similarity index for the composition of both variables. Comparing the Bray‐Curtis similarity index of the species composition with the index of the fatty acid composition was used to estimate the effects of species sorting and physiological plasticity.
Changes in nutrient supply influenced fatty acid responses based on species sorting and physiological plasticity the most. On one hand, the relevance of physiological plasticity was highest at cultivation in different nutrient supplies but the same light environment. Conversely with low nutrients species sorting appeared to dominate the response to changes in light, while at high nutrients physiological plasticity appeared to influence the response. Overall, under low phosphorus supply the communities showed a lower total fatty acid content per carbon and had increased proportions of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids. Instead, communities in low light produced more of eicosapentaenoic acid.
Our results suggest that the relevance of species sorting and physiological plasticity in shaping the community response highly depends on the environmental factors that influence the system. Nutrient supply had the largest effect, while light had more limited conditional effects. However, all of these factors are important in shaping the food quality of the phytoplankton community for higher trophic levels.
In einer Welt durchsetzt mit Gerüchen, haben marine Tiere hochentwickelte chemosensorische Systeme entwickelt um den vielfältigen Anforderungen des Lebens und Überlebens gerecht zu werden. Nahrungserwerb, Kommunikation, das Erkennen von Räubern oder potentieller Partner sind in diesem Kontext nur als Rahmen zu nennen. Durch eine Vielzahl an Sensillen, sowie durch spezifische, olfaktorisch geführte Verhaltensweisen, wie dem antennal flicking oder Stimulus-gerichteter Navigation, zeigen viele Vertreter der Malacostraca ein hohes Maß an Präzision und Genauigkeit in der Differenzierung und Lokalisierung von Düften. Die Mehrzahl der detaillierten morphologischen und ethologischen Studien konzentrierte sich bislang jedoch auf decapode Crustaceen. Das außer Acht lassen kleinerer Spezies abseits der klassischen Modellorganismen führte daher zu einer gewissen Einseitigkeit unseres Verständnisses der chemosensorischen Pfade und Nahrungssuchstrategien. Während einige der terrestrischen Asseln (Oniscidea) schon gelegentlich als Vorlage für Studien dienten um die chemosensorischen Pfade in puncto Morphologie, Physiologie und Verhalten zu untersuchen, beruht unser Verständnis der chemischen Ökologie mariner Isopoden lediglich auf vereinzelten Beobachtungen und Annahmen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollen verschiedene Aspekte der Morphologie und Phänomenologie der Chemorezeption der baltischen Riesenassel Saduria entomon (Valvifera) LINNAEUS 1758 berücksichtigt werden. Abschließend soll anhand der vorgelegten Ergebnisse ein Rahmen entworfen werden, in welchem die Terrestrialisierung der Oniscidea neu betrachtet werden muss. Gestützt durch 3D Rekonstruktionen, konventionelle Lichtmikroskopie sowie konfokale Laser-Scanning-Mikroskopie, wurden die generelle Anatomie des Gehirns, sowie das neuronale Substrat der chemosensorischen Pfade untersucht. Während es innerhalb der terrestrischen Isopoden zu einer drastischen Größenreduktion ihrer ersten Antenne und allen mit dieser assoziierten Gehirnareale kam, besitzt S. entomon ein olfaktorisches System, das in Bezug auf die antennale und neuronale Morphologie noch sehr grundmusternah aufgebaut ist. Im Vergleich mit den Decapoda zeigen sich jedoch deutliche Unterschiede in der strukturellen Diversität und dem Umfang von Nervengewebe das in der Verarbeitung chemischer Informationen beteiligt ist. Gleich ihren terrestrischen Verwandten zeigt S. entomon zudem einige Besonderheiten, die die sensorischen Pfade der zweiten Antenne betreffen. Die mikroglomeruläre Organisation des assoziierten Neuropils deutet auf eine zunehmende Bedeutung dieses Anhangs in der Wahrnehmung und Verarbeitung chemischer Informationen hin. Verhaltensuntersuchungen lassen jedoch Zweifel an dem olfaktorischen Potential dieser Spezies aufkommen. Mittels eines Y-Labyrinthes und einer Reihe an Düften, dem das Tier in seiner natürlichen Umgebung begegnen mag, konnte gezeigt werden, dass S. entomon einen offenkundigen Mangel an Präzision aufweist, Stimuli zu differenzieren, sowie die Quelle eines Stimulus zu lokalisieren. In lediglich vier von 15 Experimenten ließ sich eine statistisch signifikante Verhaltensantwort beobachten. In diesen konnte darüber hinaus nur ein Stimulus als attraktiv identifiziert wurde. Auf Basis von Freilandbeobachtungen, die das Tier mit einer gewissen Zufälligkeit umherwandernd darstellen, wurde ein Experiment entwickelt in welchem S. entomon in einem Mikrokosmos, und nur durch chemosensorische Sinne, einen Köder lokalisieren sollte. Obwohl es zwischen Kontrolle und Stimulusexperimenten deutliche Unterschiede in den aufgenommenen Bewegungsparametern gab, war kein von anderen Malacostraca oder Hexapoda bekanntes Suchmuster zu identifizieren. Eine statistische Auswertung der durch das Tier zurückgelegten Pfade ergab jedoch, dass die Tiere sich einer chemotaktischen Orientierung bedienten. Diese scheint zudem einer positiven rheotaktischen Bewegung überlagert. Um die Bedeutung der chemosensorischen Anhänge für eine erfolgreiche Nahrungssuche zu verdeutlichen, wurden chemische Ablationen der ersten und zweiten Antennen durchgeführt. Einige wenige Tiere waren zwar noch in der Lage den Köder zu lokalisieren, die Deaktivierung der Antennen führte aber zu einer beinahe vollständigen Unfähigkeit den Stimulus ausfindig zu machen. Eine Pfadanalyse konnte daher Chemotaxie als elementaren Orientierungsmechanismus ausschließen. Statt dieser wurde Chemokinesie mit einer ausgeprägten positiven rheotaktischen Komponente identifiziert. Darüber hinaus demonstriert dieses Experiment die Abhängigkeit S. entomon‘s von der komplexen Interaktion der Distanz- und Kontaktchemorezeptoren für einen effizienten Suchlauf. Bislang wurde davon ausgegangen, dass terrestrische Isopoden es nicht geschafft haben ihr olfaktorisches System derart anzupassen, dass es in Luft anstatt von Wasser operiert. Um der Notwendigkeit eines chemosensorischen Systems gerecht zu werden, entwickelte sich daher de novo ein System, in welchem die zweite Antenne sowie ihr neuronales Substrat entsprechend transformiert wurden. Das Vorhandensein eines gleichartig organisierten Systems in einem relativ nah verwandten marinen Vertreter deutet jedoch darauf hin, dass die Tendenz zu dieser Funktionstransformation der zweiten Antenne bereits im letzten gemeinsamen Vorfahren vorhanden war und somit der Kolonisation des Landes durch die Asseln vorausging. Die zweite Antenne als der maßgebliche chemosensorische Anhang der Oniscidea kann daher als Präadaptation verstanden werden, welche im Laufe ihrer Terrestrialisierung eine antennulare Olfaktion zweitrangig, wenn nicht sogar obsolet machte.
Most animals live solitarily, but for some species the benefits of group living outweigh the costs and social communities have evolved. Truly social societies are characterized by cooperation in tasks like foraging, predator defense and brood care. In the most extreme cases, non-reproducing individuals act as helpers and provision offspring of reproducing individuals at the cost of their own reproductive success. This alloparental care is attributed to kin selection that provides the helpers with inclusive fitness benefits. However, how reproductive role is determined and in which ways virgin helpers in a group benefit the community is not always well understood.
Spiders are known to be generalist hunters, which in many cases do not shy away from cannibalism. Thus, most spiders live solitarily. However, in a few species a permanently social lifestyle has evolved in which individuals live together throughout their life, providing an intriguing case of social evolution. These spider communities are characterized by lack of premating dispersal leading to extreme inbreeding, by reproductive skew, in which only a proportion of females reproduce and by cooperative breeding of the reproducing females. It has been assumed that the large proportion of virgin females act as helpers not only in foraging and web maintenance but also during brood care. In the social spider Stegodyphus dumicola brood care involves the intensive task of regurgitation feeding, at which mothers regurgitate their own liquefied body tissue. At the end of brood care, the offspring sucks the mothers dry during matriphagy, leading to the death of brood caring females and a semelparous lifestyle. In the closely related solitarily breeding Stegodyphus lineatus virgin females do not provide brood care. The ability of virgin females in S. dumicola to care for offspring would thus depict an adaptation to sociality and cooperative breeding. I therefore aimed to clarify the role and significance of virgin females in colonies of social spiders and furthermore investigated a possible mechanism of how reproductive role within a colony is determined.
I investigated whether there is differential task participation in a non-reproductive task and the task of brood care among reproducing mothers and virgin females (helpers) in Stegodyphus dumicola. The study provides explicit evidence that brood care – including egg sac care, regurgitation feeding and matriphagy – is performed by mothers as well as by virgin helpers. Virgin females in a colony can thus rightfully be termed allomothers. However, the task participation differed between the reproductive states. While mothers engaged more often in brood care, virgin females were more active in foraging. However, the active provisioning of offspring by the virgin females decreases the motherly workload as is suggested by the extended brood care period in comparison to solitary breeders. The observations on virgin allomaternal care are supported by histological studies on the midgut tissue of brood caring females, which revealed that mothers and virgin helpers undergo comparable morphological changes in preparation of regurgitation feeding. The changes in virgin females correlate to ovarian development that might depict an internal maturation process which sets virgin females in the right state to provide care. The morphological changes in mothers and virgin helpers of S. dumicola are less comprehensive than in the solitarily breeding S. lineatus mothers. This indicates that cooperatively caring females are able to save on their resources, provision offspring for longer and thus are probably able to increase survival of the brood by an extended care period. A surprising consequence of cooperative brood care is the ability of mothers to produce a second viable egg sac, even when the first brood is successful. Mothers of the cooperative breeding S. dumicola can thus depart from the strictly semelparous lifestyle and instead invest part of their resources in a second clutch. This finding identified a new way of how cooperative breeding enhances breeding success of reproducers and thus inclusive fitness for helpers as well, thus adding to the benefits of allomaternal care.
Virgin females did not store significantly lower amounts of lipids in their midgut tissue than mothers, raising the question of how much reproductive role of females is determined by competition for resources during growth, as often assumed. Another possible determinant of female reproductive skew is the characteristic male scarcity in spider colonies, with only about 12 percent of spiders being male. Males are assumed to mature early within a few days and die early, thus leaving late maturing females unmated due to lack of mating partners. However, my studies provided evidence that male maturation is more skewed than expected and males might survive several months. Subadult females did not accelerate molting when an adult male was present, which could further indicate, that male presence is not a limiting factor on reproduction in males. Furthermore, males are able copulate with up to 16 females and did not show e preference for large females during mating trials. Males are thus able to fertilize all females, provided all females mature in time. I therefore suggest, that male scarcity is not major determinant of reproductive skew in females, especially in small and middle-sized colonies in which female maturation might only be moderately skewed.
My studies were able to demonstrate the meaning of the large proportion of unmated females in a colony of the social spider S. dumicola. Virgin helpers support mothers during brood care and thus do not only enhance the brood care period but facilitate mothers to produce multiple clutches. Virgin females are able to care as they undergo similar morphological changes as mothers’ do. This seems to be facilitated by an internal maturation process, indicated by ovarian development and oviposition by virgin females, both of which has never been observed in virgins of the subsocial species. How reproductive role is determined remains unclear, but I was able to exclude male scarcity as a major factor influencing reproductive skew.